语音学和音系学考试资料.docx
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语音学和音系学考试资料.docx
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语音学和音系学考试资料
Phonetics
1.Thedifferencesbetweenconsonantsandvowels
Consonantsareproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacetodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheairflowinthecavity.However,avowelisproducedwithoutsuchobstructionsonoturbulenceoratotalstoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.
2.Mannersofarticulation
Itreferstotheactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartofvocaltracts.Thereareseveralbasicwaysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished:
thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;ortheymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.
(1).Stop:
completeclosureofthearticulatorsinvolvedsothattheairstreamcannotescapethroughthemouth.Itisessentialtoseparatethreephrasesintheproductionofastop:
(a)theclosingphase,inwhichthearticulatorscometogether;(b)thecompressionphrase,duringwhichairiscompressedbehindtheclosure;(c)thereleasephrase,duringwhichthearticulatorsformingtheobstructioncomerapidlyapartandtheairissuddenlyreleased.InEnglish,[p,b,t,d,k,g]arestopsand[m,n,?
]arenasals.
(2)Fricative:
closeapproximationoftwoarticulatorssothattheairstreamispartiallyobstructedandturbulentairflowisproduced.InEnglish,[f,v,θ,e,s,z,?
?
h]arefricatives.
(3)Approximant:
anarticulationinwhichonearticulatorisclosetoanother,butwithoutthevocaltractbeingnarrowedtosuchanextentthataturbulentairstreamisproduced.Thegapbetweenthearticulatorsisthereforelargerthanforafricativeandnoturbulenceisgenerated.InEnglish,thisclassofsoundsincludes[w,r,j].
(4)Lateral:
obstructionoftheairstreamatapintalongthecenteroftheoraltract,withincompleteclosurebetweenoneorbothsidesofthetongueandtheroofofthemouth.[l]istheonlylateralinEnglish.
(5)Trill:
producedwhenanarticulatorissetvibratingbytheairstream.Amajortrillsoundis[r],asinred.
(6)Affricates:
involvingmorethanoneofthesemannersofarticulationinthattheyconsistofastopfollowedimmediatelyafterwardsbyafricativeatthesameplaceofarticulation.InEnglish,the“ch[t?
]”ofcheeseandthe“j[d?
]”ofjetarebothaffricates.
3.Placesofarticulation
Itreferstothepointwhereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowingortheabstractionofair.Practically,consonantsmaybeproducedatanyplacebetweenthetipsandthevocalfolds.
(1)Bilabial:
madewiththetwolips.InEnglish,bilabialsoundsinclude[p,b,m,w],asinpet,bet,metandwet.
(2)Labiodental:
madewiththelowerlipandtheupperfrontteeth.Labiodentalsoundsinclude[f,v],asinfireandfive.
(3)Dental:
madebythetonguetipandtheupperfrontteeth.Onlyfrictives[θ,e]aredentalsounds.
(4)Alveolar:
madewiththetonguetipandthealveolarridge.Soundsinclude[t,d,n,s,z,r,l]forEnglish.
(5)Postalveolar:
madewiththetonguetipandthebackofthealveolarridge.Suchsoundsinclude[?
?
],asinshipandpleasure.
(6)Patatal:
madewiththefronttothetongueandthehardpalate.TheonlyEnglishsoundmadehereis[j],asinyesandyet.
(7)Velar:
madewiththeblackofthetongueandthesoftpalate.ExamplesinEnglisharevelarstops[k,g],asincatandget,andvelarnasal[?
],asinsing.
(8)Glottal:
madewiththetwopiecesofvocalfoldspushedtowardseachother.Theonlyglottalis[h]inhatandhead.
4.Descriptionoftheconsonants(必考)
[p]voicelessbilabialstop[b]voicedbilabialstop
[s]voicelessalveolarfricative[z]voicedalveolarfricative
[m]bilabialnasal;[j]palatalapproximant
[h]glottalfricative[l]alveolarlateral
5.CardinalVowels
Thecardinalvowelsareasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.
6.Threetypesofvowels
Accordingtothequalityofproduction,thereare3typesofvowels.Thefirstoneismonophthong,whosequalityofproductionisunchangeablemovement;thesecondoneisdiphthong,whosequalityofproductionisasinglechangemovement;andthelastoneistriphthong,whosequalityofproductionis2changemovements,suchastower/?
ta?
?
(r)/.
7.短元音发音是会受到清辅音和浊辅音的影响,后面是浊辅音是元音长;后面是清辅音时,元音短。
如:
bit/bid;beat/bead;dot/dog;bat/bag.
8.Thedescriptionofvowels(必考)
●theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low)
●thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back)
●thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tense&laxorlong&short)
●lip-rounding(rounded&unrounded)
[i:
]highfronttenseunroundedvowel
[u]highbacklaxroundedvowel
[?
]lowbacklaxroundedvowel
9.Coarticulation(可能会考)
Whensuchsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved,wecalltheprocesscoarticulation.Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,asinthecaseoflamb,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation.Ifthesounddisplaystheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itisperseverativecoarticulation,asisthecaseofmap.Practically,anticipatorycoarticulationeffectsarefarmorecommonthanperseverativecoarticulationeffects.
10.BroadandNarrowTranscription
Whenweuseasimplesetofsymbols[?
]inourtranscription,itiscalledabroadtranscription.Theuseofmorespecificsymbols[?
]toshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.
11.Suprasegmentalfeatures—thoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansingleconsonantorvowel.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsaresyllables,stress,toneandintonation.
12.Thesyllablestructure(必考)
InEnglish,awordmaybemonosyllabic(withonesyllable,likecatanddog)orpolysyllabic(withmorethanonesyllable,liketransportationandsyllable).Asyllablemusthaveanucleus.Butsometimesitisalsopossibleforaconsonanttoplaythepartofanucleus.Inthesecondsyllablethereisonlythesyllabicconsonant[l]tofunctionasthenucleus.Consonants[m,n]alsohavesuchfunctionsinEnglish,asinbottom/?
b?
tm/andcotton?
/k?
tn/.
Wecandivideasyllableintotwoparts,therhymeandtheonset.Asthevowelwithintherhymeisthenucleus,theconsonant(s)afteritwillbetermedthecoda.
Allsyllablesmusthaveanucleusbutnotallsyllablescontainanonsetandacoda.Asyllablethathasnocodaiscalledanopensyllablewhileasyllablewithcodaisknownasclosedsyllable.
InEnglish,theonsetpositionmaybeemptyorfilledbyaclusterofasmanyasthreeconsonants,whilethecodapositionmaybefilledbyasmanyasfourconsonants(asinsixths/s?
ksθs/).Forthismatter,theEnglishsyllablemayberepresentedasCCCVCCCC.WhileintheChinesesyllable,itallowsatmostoneconsonantintheonsetpositionandonlynasals[n,?
]inthecoda.SotheStandardChinesesyllableisrepresentedasCVC.
Whenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthancoda,suchastelling.ThisphenomenaiscalledMaximalOnsetPrinciple(MOP).
Phonology
1.Thedifferencesbetweenphoneticsandphonology(必考)
Phoneticsisthetheoryoftheproduction,transmission,perception,description,classificationandtranscriptionofspeechsounds.
Phonologyisconcernedwiththelinguisticpatterningofsoundsinsoundsinhumanlanguages,withitsprimaryaimbeingtodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur.
Taketeaandtooasanexample.Phoneticiansareconcernedwithhowthetwo/t/sdifferinthewaytheyarepronounced.Itisgeneral,descriptiveandclassificatory,whichstudiesspeechsoundsastheyare.Whilephonologistsareinterestedinpatterningofthetwosoundsandtherulesthatunderliesuchvariations.Itstudiesthesoundsystemsoflanguages,whichisparticularlyabstractanddistinctive,revealingthefunctioningofthespeechsounds.
2.Whatarephone,phonemesandallophones(必考)
(1)Phoneisaminimalsoundunitthathumanorgancanproduce.Itcannotdistinguishmeaningsbutcanshowthesubtlechangeofsounds.Itisaphoneticunit,usuallyrepresentedby[].Thisiscalledphonetictranscription,whichisalsocallednarrowtranscription,suchaspit[p](aspirated)andspit[p](unaspirated).
(2)Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit,thesmallestdistinctiveandabstractcollectionofphoneticfeatureswhichcandistinguishmeanings.Therefore,/p/,/b/,/e/,/i/inpit/bit,andpet/pitareallEnglishphonemes,representedby“//”.Thisiscalledphonetictranscription,whichisalsocalledbroadtranscription.
(3)Allophonesarethephonesthatcanrepresentaphoneme.Takepit[p](aspirated)andspit[p](unaspirated)asanexample.[p]and[p]aretwodifferentphonesandvariationofphoneme/p/.Theycalledtheallophonesofthesamephoneme/p/.
3.Assimilation(必考)
Assimilationisaphonologicalterm,whichisoftenusedsynonymouslywithcoarticulation,aphoneticterm.Itreferstoprocessinwhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Thereare2possibilitiesofassimilation:
ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitregressiveassimilation,eg:
lamb;ifaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,wecallitprogressiveassimilation,eg:
map.
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