大学英语自学教程下.docx
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大学英语自学教程下.docx
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大学英语自学教程下
大学英语自学教程(下)
01-A.WhatIsaDecision?
2
01-B.SecretsofSuccessatanInterview4
02-A.BlackHoles7
02-B.WorldswithinWorlds9
03-A.Euthanasia:
ForandAgainst11
03-B.AdvantageUnfair13
04-A.SlaveryonOurDoorstep16
04-B.ReturnofTheChainGang18
05-A.TheNewMusic20
05-B.DifferentTypesofComposers21
06-A.ImprovingIndustrialEfficiencythroughRobotics23
06-B.PredictingEarthquakes25
07-A.LeisureandLeadership27
07-B.TheTimeMessage29
08-A.JetLag:
PreventionandCure32
08-B.CoetrollingYourConcentration34
09-A.AginginEuropeanCountries37
09-B.Children'sSelf-esteem39
10-A.TheCampaignforElection42
10-B.TheAmericanTwo-partySystem44
11-A.SacrificedtoScience?
46
11-B.Let'sStopKeepingPets49
12-A.LetYourMindWander51
12-B.ToSleep,PerchancetoDream55
13-A.Work,Labor,andPlay59
13-B.TheWorkman'sCompensation61
14-A.TheTeacher'sLastShockinglesson64
14-B.TheSeedsofWrath66
15-A.TheComputerandThePoet69
15-B.ChangestoComeinU.S.Education71
01-A.WhatIsaDecision?
Adecisionisachoicemadefromamongalternativecoursesofactionthatareavailable.Thepurposeofmakingadecisionistoestablishandachieveorganizationalgoalsandobjectives.Thereasonformakingadecisionisthataproblemexists,goalsorobjectivesarewrong,orsomethingisstandinginthewayofaccomplishingthem.
Thusthedecision-makingprocessisfundamentaltomanagement.Almosteverythingamanagerdoesinvolvesdecisions,indeed,somesuggestthatthemanagementprocessisdecisionmaking.Althoughmanagerscannotpredictthefuture,manyoftheirdecisionsrequirethattheyconsiderpossiblefutureevents.Oftenmanagersmustmakeabestguessatwhatthefuturewillbeandtrytoleaveaslittleaspossibletochance,hutsinceuncertaintyisalwaysthere,riskaccompaniesdecisions.Sometimestheconsequencesofapoordecisionareslight;atothertimestheyareserious.
Choiceistheopportunitytoselectamongalternatives.Ifthereisnochoice,thereisnodecisiontobemade.Decisionmakingistheprocessofchoosing,andmanydecisionshaveabroadrangeofchoice.Forexample,astudentmaybeabletochooseamonganumberofdifferentcoursesinordertoimplementthedecisiontoobtainacollegedegree.Formanagers,everydecisionhasconstraintsbasedonpolicies,procedures,laws,precedents,andthelike.Theseconstraintsexistatalllevelsoftheorganization.
Alternativesarethepossiblecoursesofactionfromwhichchoicescanbemade.Iftherearenoalternatives,thereisnochoiceand,therefore,nodecision.Ifnoalternativesareseen,oftenitmeansthatathoroughjobofexaminingtheproblemshasnotbeendone.Forexample,managerssometimestreatproblemsinaneither/orfashion;thisistheirwayofsimplifyingcomplexproblems.Butthetendencytosimplifyblindsthemtootheralternatives.
Atthemanageriallevel,decisionmakingincludeslimitingalternativesaswellasidentifyingthem,andtherangeisfromhighlylimitedtopracticallyunlimited.
Decisionmakersmusthavesomewayofdeterminingwhichofseveralalternativesisbest--thatis,whichcontributesthemosttotheachievementoforganizationalgoals.Anorganizationalgoalisanendorastateofaffairstheorganizationseekstoreach.Becauseindividuals(andorganizations)frequentlyhavedifferentideasabouthowtoattainthegoals,thebestchoicemaydependonwhomakesthedecision.Frequently,departmentsorunitswithinanorganizationmakedecisionsthataregoodforthemindividuallybutthatarelessthanoptimalforthelargerorganization.Calledsuboptimization,thisisatrade-offthatincreasestheadvantagestooneunitorfunctionbutdecreasestheadvantagestoanotherunitorfunction.Forexample,themarketingmanagermayargueeffectivelyforanincreasedadvertisingbudget.Inthelargerschemeofthings,however,increasedfundingforresearchtoimprovetheproductsmightbemorebeneficialtotheorganization.
Thesetrade-offsoccurbecausetherearemanyobjectivesthatorganizationswishtoattainsimultaneously.Someoftheseobjectivesaremoreimportantthanothers,buttheorderanddegreeofimportanceoftenvaryfrompersontopersonandfromdepartmenttodepartment.Differentmanagersdefinethesameproblemindifferentterms.Whenpresentedwithacommoncase,salesmanagerstendtoseesalesproblems,productionmanagersseeproductionproblems,andsoon.
Theorderingandimportanceofmultipleobjectivesisalsobased,inpart,onthevaluesofthedecisionmaker.Suchvaluesarepersonal;theyarehardtounderstand,evenbytheindividual,becausetheyaresodynamicandcomplex.Inmanybusinesssituationsdifferentpeople'svaluesaboutacceptabledegreesofriskandprofitabilitycausedisagreementaboutthecorrectnessofdecisions.
Peopleoftenassumethatadecisionisanisolatedphenomenon.Butfromasystemspointofview,problemshavemultiplecauses,anddecisionshaveintendedandunintendedconsequences.Anorganizationisanongoingentity,andadecisionmadetodaymayhaveconsequencesfarintothefuture.Thustheskilledmanagerlookstowardthefutureconsequencesofcurrentdecisions.
01-B.SecretsofSuccessatanInterview
Thesubjectoftoday'stalkisinterviews.
Thekeywordsherearepreparationandconfidence,whichwillcarryyoufar.
Doyourhomeworkfirst.
Findoutallyoucanaboutthejobyouareapplyingforandtheorganizationyouhopetoworkfor.
ManyoftheemployersIinterviewedmadethesamecriticismofcandidates."Theyhavenoideawhatthedaytodayworkofthejobbringsabout.Theyhavevaguenotionsof"furtheringthecompany'sprospects’orof'servingthecommunity',buthavenevertakenthetroubletofindouttheactualtaskstheywillberequiredtodo.”
Donotletthisbesaidofyou.Itshowsanunattractiveindifferencetoyouremployerandtoyourjob.
Takethetimetoputyourselfintotheinterviewer'splace.Hewantssomebodywhoishard-workingwithapleasantpersonalityandarealinterestinthejob.
Anythingthatyoufindoutabouttheprospectiveemployercanbeusedtoyouradvantageduringtheinterviewtoshowthatyouhavebotheredtomastersomefactsaboutthepeoplewhoyouhopetoworkfor.
Writedown(andremember)thequestionsyouwanttoasktheinterviewer(s)sothatyouarenotspeechlesswhentheyinviteyourquestions.Makesurethatholidaysandpayarenotthefirstthingsyouaskabout.Ifallyourquestionshavebeenansweredduringtheinterview,reply:
"Infact,Ididhaveseveralquestions,butyouhavealreadyansweredthemall.”
Donotbeafraidtoaskforclarificationofsomethingthathasbeensaidduringtheinterviewifyouwanttobesurewhatwasimplied,butdobepolite.
Justbeforeyougototheinterview,lookagainattheoriginaladvertisementthatyouanswered,anycorrespondencefromyourprospectiveemployer,photocopiesofyourletterofapplicationorapplicationformandyourresume.
Thenyouwillrememberwhatyousaidandwhattheywant.Thisisveryimportantifyouhaveappliedformanyjobsinashorttimeasitiseasytobecomeconfusedandgiveanimpressionofinefficiency.
Makesureyouknowwhereandwhenyouhavetoreportfortheinterview.Gotothebuilding(butnotinsidetheoffice)adayortwobefore,ifnecessary,tofindouthowlongthejourneytakesandwhereexactlytheplaceis.
Aimtoarrivefiveortenminutesearlyfortheactualinterview,thenyouwillhavealittletimeinhandandyouwillnotpanicifyouaredelayed.Youstartatadisadvantageifyouarriveworriedandtenminuteslate.
Dressinclean,neat,conservativeclothes.NowisNOTthetimetoexperimentwiththepunklookor(girls)towearlow-cutdresseswithminiskirts.Makesurethatyourshoes,handsandhair(andteeth)arecleanandneat.
Havetheletterinvitingyouforaninterviewreadytoshowincasethereisanydifficultyincommunication.
Youmayfindyourselffacingoneinterviewerorapanel.Thelatterisfarmoreintimidating,butdonotletitworryyoutoomuch.Theinterviewerwillprobablyhaveatableinfrontofhim/her.Donotputyourthingsorarmsonit.
Ifyouhaveabagoracase,putitonthefloorbesideyourchair.Donotclutchitnervouslyor,worsestill,dropit,spillingeverything.
Shakehandsiftheintervieweroffershishandfirst.Thereislittlelikelihoodthatapaneloffivewantstogothoughtheprocessofallshakinghandswithyouinturn.Soyoudonotbeupsetifnooneoffers.
Shakehandsfirmly--aweakhandsuggestsaweakpersonality,andacrushinggripisobviouslypainful.Donotdropthehandassoonasyourshastoucheditasthiswillseemtoshowyoudonotliketheotherperson.
Speakpolitelyandnaturallyevenifyouarefeelingshy.Thinkbeforeyouansweranyquestions.
Ifyoucannotunderstand,ask:
"Wouldyoumindrephrasingthequestion,please?
"Thequestionwillthenberepeatedindifferentwords.
Ifyouarenotdefinitelyacceptedorturneddownonthespot,ask:
"WhenmayIexpecttoheartheresultsofthisinterview?
"
Ifyoudoreceivealetterofferingyouthejob,youmustreplybyletter(keepaphotocopy)assoonaspossible.
Goodluck!
02-A.BlackHoles
Whatisablackhole?
Well,it'sdifficulttoanswerthisquestion,sincethetermswewouldnormallyusetodescribeascientificphenomenonareinadequatehere.Astronomersandscientiststhinkthatablackholeisaregionofspace(notathing)intowhichmatterhasfallenandfromwhichnothingcanescape?
notevenlight.Sowecan'tseeablackhole.Ablackholeexertsastronggravitationalpullandyetithasnomatter.Itisonlyspace--orsowethink.How
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