当代语言学导论复习要点详细含课后单词.docx
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当代语言学导论复习要点详细含课后单词.docx
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当代语言学导论复习要点详细含课后单词
IntroductiontoContemporaryLinguistics
Chapter1
Humansuperiorityliesinhisuniqueendowment-----theabilitytotalk,orrather,tocommunicatebymeansoflanguage.
Talmud:
godcreatedtheworldbyaword,instantaneously,withouttoilorpains.
Widdowson:
theprimacyoflanguageinthewayhumanbeingsconceiveoftheworld.
Languageisavehicleofpower,forcontrol,forcreation,andforchange.
Thestudyofhumanlanguageiscalledlinguistics.
Linguisticsdealswithhumanlanguageasawholeorasparticularlanguages.
1.Asawhole:
thesystemofhumancommunicationwhichconsistsofthestructuredarrangementofsounds(ortheirwrittenrepresentation)intolargerunits,e.g.morphemes,words,sentences,utterances.
2.Asparticularlanguage:
likeFrenchlanguage,theyareparticularsystemsofhumancommunicationusedbypeoplelivingindifferentpartsoftheworld.
Thereisacontinuumfromonelanguagetoanother.
Varietiesoflanguage:
Anyparticularlanguageisinessenceasetofvarieties.
1.localvarieties区域变体–dialectsandaccents(theformerdifferfromeachotherinpronunciation,vocabulary,andevengrammar;thelatteronlyinpronunciation)
2.socialvarieties—sociolects社会方言(=socialdialects,usedbypeopleofdifferentclasses,ages,orsexes),
3.historicalvarieties—temporalvariety.(e.g.the17thcenturyEnglish)
4.stylisticoroccupationalvarieties---registers语域(e.g.formalEnglish,scientificEnglish)
5.individualvarieties—idiolects个人语言.
6.Usuallyalanguagehasanofficiallydeclaredorgenerallyconsideredstandarddialect(e.g.PutonghuainChina,GeneralAmericanintheUS)
FromPrescriptivismtoDescriptivism
Prescriptivismistheviewthatonevarietyoflanguagehasaninherentlyhighervaluethanothers.(trytoimposerulesfromsomehighprestigelanguagetosomelowerprestigelanguage,likeLatinandEnglish)
Descriptivismisthepolicyofdescribinglanguagesastheyareboundtoexist.Usagesofdifferentvarietiesshouldbeobservedandrecordedinsteadofbeingjudgedwithsomeimposednorms.
Endowedorconventional?
Plato’sproblem:
Howcaneveryhumanbeingdeveloparichsystemoflinguisticknowledgeonthebasisoflimitedandfragmentaryempiricalevidence?
Sideofendowment:
nativists(天生论)ormentalists(心智说)
Plato:
1.Man’sknowledgecamefromuniversaltruths.
2.Therewasauniversallycorrectandacceptablelogicoflanguageformantofollowinexpressinghisideas.
3.Knowledgeoflanguagewasnotlearnedbutrecalled.
Chomsky:
Thereisabiological,physiologicalentityinsideourbrainwhichdecideswhatwespeak.
Chomskyhasgivenanametothisentity----UG,oruniversalgrammar.Hisepistemologyoftheknowledgeoflanguagefoesasfollows:
1.Everyhumanbeinghasthelanguagecompetence能力,becausehehastheinbornUGwhichotherspecieslack.
2.UGistheinitialstateofthehumanlanguagefaculty语言器官/机制whichalonecannotenableahumanbabytospeak.Ababyneedstobeexposedtothelinguisticenvironmentofacertainlanguageandaccumulateexperience.
3.Duetotheeffectoflaterexperience,thebaby’sminddevelopsfromtheinitialstateintothesteadystate,whichcorrespondstothecompetenceofspeakingaspecifichumanlanguage.
Sideofconvention:
behavioristorempiricists
Aristotle:
knowledgeoflanguagewasarrivedatbyconventionandagreementofthespeakersofagivenlanguage.
Xunzi:
anamewasacceptedthroughpublicagreement,andtheappropriatenessofnamingathinglayinconvention.
Thepoweroflanguageexistsinitscountlessvarieties,notrelyingonanyuniversalstandard.
Connectionism
Diachronic(历经时间的):
focusonthecomparisonbetweenlanguagesandtheexplorationofthehistoricalchangeandvariationofsomeancientlanguages./of,relatingto,ordealingwithphenomena(asoflanguageorculture)astheyoccurorchangeoveraperiodoftime
Synchronic(共时的):
researchofthefactsoflanguageagreeduponorsharedbyhismembersoflanguagecommunityatagivenpointintime./concernedwitheventsexistinginalimitedtimeperiodandignoringhistoricalantecedents
Glossary
Endowments:
(天赋)thenaturalqualitythatapersonismaderichoffromthebirth.
Register:
(语域)thewords,style,andgrammarusedbyspeakersandwritersinparticularconditions,namelyasociallydefinedvarietyoflanguage.
Idiolect:
(个人语言)thelinguisticsystemofanindividualspeaker.
Sociolect:
(社会方言)alsosocialdialect.Varietyofalanguagedefinedbysocialfactorssuchasage,religion,ethnicity,orsocioeconomicstatus.Sociolectsmaybeclassedashighorlow(instatus).
Prescriptivism:
(规定主义)theimpositionofarbitrarynormsuponalanguage,oftenindefianceofnormalusage.
Descriptivism:
(描写主义)thepolicyofdescribinglanguagesastheyareboundtoexist.
Nativism:
(天生论)philosophicalandpsychologicalpositionwhichholdsthatcognitivedevelopmentofhumansarisesfrom“innateideas”.Thenativistpositionhasbeenusedtoexplainhowchildrenareabletolearnlanguageandcontrastswiththebeliefthatallhumanknowledgecomesfromexperience(empiricism).
Mentalism:
(心智说)psychologicalandphilosophicalconceptpickedupanddevelopedbyChomsky(1965),whichattemptstodescribetheinternal(innate)languagemechanismthatprovidesthebasisforthecreativeaspectoflanguagedevelopmentanduse.
Dualism:
(二元论)aphilosophicalsystemthatrecognizestwoultimateandindependentprinciplesintheschemeofthings,suchasmindandmatter.
Monism:
(一元论)ageneralnameforthosephilosophicaltheorieswhichdenythedualityofmatterandmind.
UniversalGrammar(UG):
(普通语法)thegeneticallyendowedinformationconsistingofprinciplesandparametersthatenablethechildtodeduceagrammarfromtheprimarylinguisticdata.
Languagecompetence:
(语言能力)knowledgeoflanguage;thelinguisticcapacityofafluentspeakerofalanguage.
Parameter:
(参数)adimensionofgrammaticalvariationbetweendifferentlanguagesordifferentvarietiesofthesamelanguage.
Empiricism:
(经验论)philosophicalandpsychologicalpositionwhichholdsthatthepsychologicaldevelopmentofhumansariseprimarilyfromexperienceandlearning.
Connectionism:
(连通主义)atheoryofcognitionwhichdrawsinspirationfromthewaythebillionsofneuronsinthebrainareinterconnectedincomplexwaystoproduceanetworkofassociations.Itholdsthatthecomplexityoflanguageemergesfromassociativelearningprocessesbeingexposedtoamassiveandcomplexenvironment.
Chapter2
Speculations:
originoflanguage
Plato----legislator
Herder----god
Universalharmonyisembracedasthefoundationofmodernlinguisticsasascience.
Galileanthesis----natureisperfect
Observation
Research
Everyperson’slexicalknowledgeofhisfirstlanguageistacitandnatural,withatendencytoinfluence,oftenunknowingly,hissecondlanguagelearning.Thisinfluenceiscalledtransfer.
Threeadequacies:
1.Observationaladequacy
2.Descriptiveadequacy
3.Explanatoryadequacy(providingadescriptivelyadequategrammarforeverynaturallanguage,anddoessointermsofmaximallyconstrainedsetofuniversalprincipleswhichrepresentpsychologicallyplausiblenaturalprinciplesofmentalcomputation.)
Testing
Atheoryinsciencemustnotbepurespeculationbuttestableatobservational,descriptive,andexplanatorylevels.
Sciencetellsusthatnatureisaphysicalcontinuum连续体,whichdoesnotbreakitselfintophysics,chemistry,psychology,linguistics…;thesedisciplines学科arenotfactsbutourdecisions.
Glossary
L1:
(第一语言)aperson’sfirstlanguage
L2:
(第二语言)aperson’ssecondlanguage.Tobemorespecific,onecouldrefertoaperson’sL3,L4,andsoon.However,thegeneraltermL2isfrequentlyusedtorefertoanylanguagelearningorusedafterthefirstlanguagehasbeenlearned.
Fossilization:
(僵化)incompleteL2acquisitionfeaturedbythefactthatprogressinacertainaspectofthetargetlanguagestopsandthelearner’slanguagebecomesfixedatanintermediatestate.Itcantakeanumberofforms,suchasfossilizedaccentorsyntax.Fossilizationcanbeapermanentfeatureofthelearner’slanguage.
Chapter3phonetics
Phonetics:
thescienceofspeechsounds.Itaimstoprovidethesetoffeaturesorpropertiesthatcanbeusedtodescribeanddistinguishallthesoundsusedinhumanlanguage.
Inaccordancewiththethreephasesjustmentioned,phoneticsisdividedintothreesub-fields.
1.Articulatoryphonetics发音语音学studiesspeechproductionbythespeechorgans;
2.Acousticphonetics声学语音学studiesphysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundstravelfromthespeakertothehearer;
3.Auditoryphonetics听觉语音学studiestheperceptionofspeechsoundsinthehumanauditoryandcognitivesystem.
IPA:
InternationalPhoneticAlphabet
ThedesignprinciplesofIPAwerethatthereshouldbeaseparateletterforeachdistinctivesound,andthatthesamesymbolshouldbeusedforthatsoundinanylanguageinwhichitappears.
A“sound”peoplesaytheyproduceisactuallyacombinationofsoundscalledasyllable,whichisoftenrelatedtoachestpulse.(syllable>=sound)
Thepropertiesoftheseseparatesounds,orsegmentsinphonetician’sjargon,canbedescribedinseveraldimensions,theplaceofarticulationandthemannerofarticulation.
1.Theplaceofarticulationreferstothepointinthevocaltractatwhichthemainclosureornarrowingismadesoastomodifytheflowofairfromthechesttothemouthinproducingasound.
2.Themannerofarticulationreferstothetypeofconstriction收缩ormovementthatoccursatanyplaceofarticulation.
Articulation
Theproductionofdifferentspeechsoundsthroughtheuseoftheseorgansisknownas
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