语言学知识点汇总.docx
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语言学知识点汇总.docx
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语言学知识点汇总
语言学知识点汇总
Chapter1Invitationstolinguistics
一、Language
1.Thedefinitionoflanguage
Languageisameansofverbalcommunication.Itisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.
2.Designfeaturesoflanguage
Thefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatureswhichcandistinguishhumanlanguagefromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.
Arbitrariness
It’sacorefeatureoflanguage,whichmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.ThisfeaturewasfirstdiscussedbySaussure.Differentlevelsofarbitrariness:
1)Soundofamorphemeanditsmeaning2)atthesyntacticallevel3)arbitrarinessandconvention
Duality
Dualityreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganizations.
Creativity
Creativitymeansthatlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Recursivenessreferstotherulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutanydefinitelimit.Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforthepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences.
Displacement
Displacementmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofconversation.
Culturaltransmission
Languageisnotbiologicallytransmitted.Instead,itisculturallytransmittedfromgenerationtogenerationthroughteachingandlearning.
Interchageability
Interchageabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.
3.Theoriginoflanguage
Thenatureresponsetheory
PutforwardbyGermanscholarM.Muller(1813-1900),thenaturalresponsetheorypostulatesthatlanguagebeganwithvocalexpressionsbeingassignedtoobjectsfoundintheenvironment.
Thesing-songtheory
Itholdsthatlanguagedevelopsfromprimitiveritualsongsofpraise.
Thepooh-poohtheory
Thetheorytraceslanguagebacktointerjectionswhichexpressesthespeakers’emotions.
Theyo-he-hotheory
Itexplainsthatlanguageoriginatedfromthecriesutteredduringstrainofwork.
Ta-Tatheory
Itbelievesthatbodymovementprecededlanguage.Languagebeganasanunconsciousvocalimitationofthesemovements.
Thebow-wowtheory
Itholdsthatlanguageoriginatedfrompeople’simitationsofanimalcriesandothersoundsheardinnature.
4.FunctionsofLanguage
Jakobson’sview(sixfunctions)注意P10的表
1)Referential(toconveymessageandinformation)
2)Poetic(toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake)
3)Emotive(toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions)
4)Conative(topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties)
5)Phatic(toestablishcommunionwithothers)
6)Metalingual(toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings)
这六种功能是根据他定义的thesixprimaryfactorsofanyspeechevent.
Namely,speaker,addressee,context,message,code,contact(LinguisticsandPoetics)
Halliday’sview(threemetafunctionsoflanguage)
1)Ideationalfunction:
toconveynewinformation,tocommunicateacontentthatisunknowntothehearer.
2)Interpersonalfunction:
embodyingalluseoflanguagetoexpresssocialandpersonalrelationships.
3)Textualfunction:
referringtothefactthatlanguagehasmechanismstomakeanystretchofspokenandwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakelivingpassagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.
Basicfunctions(七个)
1)Informative
Theinformativefunctionmeanslanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.
2)Interpersonalfunction
Interpersonalfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.
3)Performativefunction
Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons.(Suchasinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies)Theperformativefunctioncanextendtothecontrolofrealityasonsomemagicalorreligiousoccasions.Thiskindoflanguageisusuallyquiteformalandevenritualized.
4)Emotivefunction
Theemotivefunctionoflanguageisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitiscrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.Thisfunctionisalsodiscussedunderthetermexpressivefunction.(Theexpressivefunctioncanoftenbeentirelypersonalandtotallywithoutanyimplicationofcommunicationtoothers.)
5)PhaticCommunion-maintaininterpersonalrelations
PhaticcommunionoriginatesfromMalinowski’sstudyofthefunctionsoflanguageperformedbyTrobriandIslanders.Itmeanspeoplealwaysusesomesmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionssuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Niceday,etc.tomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.
6)Recreationalfunction
Recreationalfunctionmeanspeopleuselanguageforthesheerjoyofusingitsuchasababy’sbabblingorachanter’schanting.
7)Metalingualfunction
Metalingualfunctionmeanswecanuselanguagetotalkaboutlanguage.
二、Linguistics
1.Definition
Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonecommunity,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.Thefourprinciplesthatmakelinguisticsascienceareexhaustiveness,consistency,economyandobjectivity.
2.BranchesofMicrolinguistics(六个分支)
Phonetics
Phoneticsstudiesspeechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech,thatis,howspeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedandreceived,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,wordsandconnectedspeech.
Phonology
Phonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.
Morphology
Morphologystudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning-morphemesandword-formationprocesses.Itisconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.
Syntax
Syntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.
Semantics
Semanticsexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.Itisnotonlyconcernedwithmeaningsofwordsaslexicalitems,butalsowithlevelsoflanguagebelowthewordandaboveit.
Pragmatics
Itisthestudyofmeaningincontext.Itdealswithparticularutterancesinparticularsituationsandisespeciallyconcernedwiththevariouswaysinwhichthemanysocialcontextsoflanguagecaninfluenceinterpretation.
3.BranchesofMacrolinguistics
Macrolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinallaspects,distinctfrommicrolinguisticswhichdealtsolelywiththeformalaspectoflanguagesystem.
Psycholinguistics
Psycholinguisticsinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandinlanguageacquisitionforexample.(Itstudieslanguagedevelopmentinthechild,suchasthetheoriesoflanguageacquisition,biologicalfoundationsoflanguage,andtherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcognition.Thereisalsothepsycholinguisticstudyoggrammar.Thepsycholinguisticconstraintsontheformofgrammararestudied.)
Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguisticsisanumbrellatermwhichcoversavarietyofdifferentinterestsinlanguageandsociety,includingthelanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.
Anthropologicallinguistics
Itistheinvestigationthatusesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtohumanculturalpatternsandbeliefs.
Computationallinguistics
Computationallinguisticsisaninterdisciplinaryfieldwhichcentersaroundtheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage.
4.Majordistinctionsinlinguistics
DescriptiveVS.Prescriptive
Descriptivetosaythatlinguisticsisadescriptivescienceistosaythatthelinguisttriestodiscoverandrecordtherulestowhichthemembersofalanguagecommunityactuallyconformanddoesnotseektoimposeuponthemotherrules,ornorms,ofcorrectness.(Peopledon’ssayX)
Prescriptivelinguisticsaimstolaydownrulesforthecorrectuseoflanguageandsettlethedisputesoverusageonceandforall.(Don’tsayX.)
Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.
SynchronicVS.Diachronic
Asynchronicstudytakesafixedinstant(usually,butnotnecessarilypresent)asitspointofobservation.Saussure’sdiachronicdescriptionisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.E.g.ThestructureofShakespeare’sEnglishVS.thechangesEnglishhasundergone.(现代更喜前者)
LangueandParole(Saussure区别二者)
Saussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguisticsaslangueandparole.
1)Langue:
relativestableandsystematic;notspokenbyanindividual.
2)Parole:
subjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints;anaturallyoccurringevent.
Competenceandperformance(Chomsky更喜前者)
1)Competence:
alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules;enablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.(stable)
2)Performance:
theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations;ofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.
Soaspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchhissupposedcompetence.
和
相似但又有所不同。
Langueisasocialproductandasetofconventionsofacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofmindofeachindividual.Saussurelooksatlangu
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