II Reading Strategies.docx
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II Reading Strategies.docx
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IIReadingStrategies
ChapterTwo
PartOne:
StrategiesofEffectiveReading
Howdopeoplereadtechnicaldocumentsonthejob?
Youmaythinkofreadingassimplylookingatapagewithwords,decodingwhattheymean,andstringingthemtogether.However,readingresearchershavelearnedthattheprocessofreadingisremarkablycomplexandhaslesstodowithdecodingthemeaningsofwordsthanwiththewayreadersinterpretandconstructthosemeanings.Howwellpeoplereadhasagreatdealtodowiththeirpriorknowledgeandtheirreadingstrategies.Experiencedreadersbringrichpriorknowledgetotheircomprehensionofadecumbent.Thisknowledgeincludeswhattheyknowaboutthecontextofadocument,whattheyknowaboutthetopic,whattheyknowabouttheorganizationofadocument,whattheyknowaboutwhen,where,andwhytouseinformationinadocument.Experiencedreadersalsobringflexible,adaptablestrategiesthattheycanusewithavarietyofdocumentsindifferentsituations.
Researchershaveanumberoftheoriesabouthowpeopleread,butmostacceptthefollowingstrategiesascriticalineffectivereading:
●Identifyingthestructureaswellasthepurposeofadocumentbycarefullyreadingboththeverbalandvisualelements.
●Distinguishingmainpoints;differentiateimportantfromunimportantideas.Makementalgistsandsummariesbasedonyourinterpretationofadocument’sverbalandvisualcues,thensynthesizethoseideas.
●Drawinginferencesfromtheinformationinadocument.Extendideasinthedocumentbyimaginingsituationsinwhichtheymightbeused.
●Generatingquestionsandanswersaboutwhatyouread.Interrogatethetest:
Thinkofexamplesandcounterexamplesthatsupportorcontradictwhat’sinadocumentandwhatyouknowfromyourownexperience.
I.IdentifyingStructure
Manytechnicaldocumentshaveaclearandidentifiablestructure.Thisstructurecanoftenbeidentifiedbyrecognizinggenrecharacteristics,carefullycheckingheadingsandothervisualcues,andreviewingfore-groundingstatements.
1.Genre
Thestructureofadocumentcanbeestablishedbythegenreaswellasbythecontentandcontext.Forexample,thestructureofabstracts—oftendescribedasthemostimportantpartofatechnicalreport—isinfluencedbythepurpose:
toprovideanoverviewofareport.Well-writtenabstractsmaintainthetoneandfocusoftheoriginaldocument,presentingkeypoints.
Theoverviewthatabstractsprovidegenerallyhasaspecificstructure,forexample,theJournaloftheAmericanMedicalAssociation(JAMA)recommendsthatarticlesaboutaclinicalinvestigationbeaccompaniedbyanabstractwithfollowingstructure:
…theobjective(s)orpurpose,thedesign(e.g.,randomized,double-blind,placebo-controlled,multicentertrial),thesetting(e.g.,universityclinic,hospital),thepatientsorparticipants,theintervention(s),themeasurementsandmainresults,…theconclusion…andimportantoutcomemeasuresorendpoints.
Example1:
StructuredAbstract
StudyObjective:
Todeterminetheassociationbetweencurrentuseofnonaspirinnonsteroidalanti-inflammatorydrugsandfatalpepticulcersoruppergastrointestinalhemorrhageintheelderly.
Design:
NestedcasecontrolstudyusingalinkedMedicaid-deathcertificatedatabase.
Setting:
TennesseeMedicaidenrolleesaged60andgreaterfrom1976to1984.
Patients:
Onehundredtwenty-twopatients(“thecases”)hadaterminalhospitalizationandapepticulceroruppergastrointestinalhemorrhageconfirmedbyhospitalchartreview.Populationcontrols(n=3897)werematchedtopotentialcasesbyage,sex,race,calendaryear,andnursinghomestatus.
MeasurementsandMainResults:
The122patients("cases")morefrequentlyfilledaprescriptionforanonaspirinnonsteroidalanti-inflammatorydrugwithin30daysbeforeonsetofillnessthandidcontrols(34%vs.11%;adjustedoddsratio,4.7;95%CI,3.1to7.2).Thisassociationbetweencurrentuseofnonaspirinnonsteroidalanti-inflammatorydrugsandfatalpepticulcerdiseasewasconsistentinthreeagegroups,womenandmen,whitesandnon-whites,andcommunityandnursinghomedwellers.Therewasnosignificantassociationbetweencasestatusandprevioususeofnonaspirinnonsteroidalanti-inflammatorydrugs(adjustedoddsratio,1.9;95%CI,0.7to4.7).
Conclusions:
Thefindingsofthisstudyaddtothegrowingevidencethatnonaspirinnonsteroidalanti-inflammatorydrugscanincreasetheriskforclinicallyseriouspepticulcerdiseaseintheelderly.
Youarelikelytoreadabstractsmorequicklyandwithgreatercomprehensionifyouanticipatetheirelementsandstructure(thisisalsotrueofotherkindsofdocumentsyoureadifyouhaveknowledgeoftheirgenre).TheexampleinFigure2.1providesausefulapproachtohelpyouanticipateandlocatethekindsofinformationthatoftenappearinabstracts:
●Background(optional)
●Purposeorrationaleofstudy
●Methodology
●Results
●Conclusions
●Implications(optional)
Example2:
StandardAbstract
1Withalisteningtypewriter听音打字机,whatanauthorsayswouldbeautomaticallyrecognizedanddisplayedinfrontofhimorher.2However,speechrecognition语音识别isnotyetadvancedenoughtoprovidepeoplewithareliablelisteningtypewriter.3Anaimofourexperimentswastodetermineifanimperfectlisteningtypewriterwouldbeusefulforcomposingletters.4Participantsdictatedletters,eitherinisolatedwordsorinconsecutivewordspeech.5Theydidthiswithsimulations模拟实验oflisteningtypewritersthatrecognizedeitheralimitedvocabularyoranunlimitedvocabulary.6Resultsindicatedthatsomeversions,evenuponfirstusingthem,wereatlestasgoodastraditionalmethodsofhandwritinganddictating.7Isolatedwordspeechwithlargevocabulariesmayprovidethebasisforausefullisteningtypewriter.
Wheneveryouarereading,youcanmakegooduseofyourtimebyknowingthegenrecharacteristicsofthedocument.Justasabstractshaveapredictablestructure,sodotheotherdocumentsyou’llread.Anticipatingthestructureandorganizationofthedocumenthelpsyoureadeffectively.
2.VisualCues
Headings,subheadings,andothervisualcueshelpreadersdistinguishthehierarchyofideasinadocument.Perhapsthemostobviousvisualcuescomeinawell-designedtableofcontents.Forexample,thetableofcontentsinFigure2-2givesreadersmultiplevisualcuesaboutthesequenceandtexthierarchy.Evenbeforereadersattendtothespecificcontent,thefollowingvisualcuesdifferentiatemainandsubordinatesectionsofthemagazine:
●Fontsize.Majorsectionsarepresentedinthelargestfont,individualarticlesarepresentedinasmallerfont.
●Indentation.Majorsectionsareleftjustified;individualarticlesareindented.
●Icons.Familiarsymbolsinacontrastingcoloridentifymainsections.
●Fontstyles.Choicessuchassmallcaps,bold,anditalics—singlyorincombination—candrawreader’sattentiontoelementssuchasheadings,keyterms,andimportantcharacteristics.
●Linespacing.Theleading(spacebetweenlines)canbeusedtochunkrelatedinformation.
●Format.Formatelements—suchnumberingitemsinasequenceorusinga“hangingindent”(thetermatthemargin;thetextindented)—makeiteasytodistinguishitems.
Figure2-2.TableofContentsShowingHierarchy
Source:
NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration,NASATechBriefs20(3)(March1996).
Visualcuessimilartothoseshowninthefigure—andothersaswell—canbeusedinthetextofadocument.Readershaveaneasiertimewithtextthathasthefollowingfeatures:
●Headingsareseparatedfromthediscussionbothspatiallyandtypographically.
●Relatedinformationischunkedbyleading(spacing)andindentationthatsignalthosechunks.
●Sequencesofitemsarecuedbylistsinwhichitemsaredistinguishedbybullets,lettersornumbers.
●Keytermsaresignaledtypographically—forexample,placedinitalicorboldtype.
Figure2-3isamanualexcerptusedtoteachaneight-hourrefreshercourseforworkerswhomightbeexposedtodangerstohazardouswastesites.Themanualshowsthepagewithvisualcuestohelpreaders:
Figure2-3.ManualExcerptwithVisualCuestoHelpReaders
SectionII
HEALTHEFFECTSOFCHEMICALS
Thebodyisacomplicatedcollectionofcells,tissue,andorgans.Thebodyhasspecialwaystoprotectitselfagainstharm.Wecallthesethebody’sdefensesystems.Butthebody’sdefensesystemscanbebrokendown,overcome,orbypassed.Whenthishappens,injuryorillnesscanresult.
WhatdetermineswhetherIgetsickornotafterIhavebeenexposedtochemicals?
Doseisthemostimportantfactordeterminingwhetherornotyouwillhaveaneffectfromexposure.Doseequals
(1)thelengthofexposureand
(2)theamountofsubstanceintheair(concentration)orhowmuchyougetonyourskinoringest.Manychemicalscaninteract;althoughthedoseofanyonechemicalmaybetoolowtoaffectyou,thecombinationfromdifferentchemicalsmaybeharmful.
Manychemicalsusedinworkplacecandamagethebody.Chemicalscauseacute(short-term)orchronic(long-term)effects.Acuteeffectsarequicklyseen,usuallyafterexposuretohighconcentrationsofahazardousmaterial.Butafterenoughexposures,permanentdamagemayoccur.Chroniceffectsusuallytakealongtimetodevelopandmaybecausedbyexposurestolowlevelsorconcentrationsoveraperiodoftime,sometimesyears.Thisperiodbetweenfirstexposureandthedevelopmentofthediseaseiscalledthelatencyperiod.
Thebodymaybeharmedatthepointwhereachemicaltouchesorentersit.Wecallthisalocaleffect.Orthebodymaybeharmedelsewhere.Whenthisoccurs,wecallthisasystemiceffect.Localeffectsdevelopwhenachemicalcomes
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