建筑类外文翻译+译文.docx
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建筑类外文翻译+译文.docx
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建筑类外文翻译+译文
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ArchitectureinaClimateofChange
Page52-Page62
Lowenergytechniquesforhousing
Itwouldappearthat,fortheindustrialisedcountries,thebestchanceofrescuelieswiththebuiltenvironmentbecausebuildingsinuseorinthecourseoferectionarethebiggestsingleindirectsourceofcarbonemissionsgeneratedbyburningfossilfuels,accountingforover50percentoftotalyouaddthetransportcostsgeneratedbybuildingstheUKgovernmentestimateis75peristhebuiltenvironmentwhichisthesectorthatcanmosteasilyaccommodatefairlyrapidchangewithoutfact,upgradingbuildings,especiallythelowerendofthehousingstock,createsaclusterofinterlockingvirtuouscircles.
Constructionsystems
Havingconsideredthechallengepresentedbyglobalwarmingandtheopportunitiestogeneratefossil-freeenergy,itisnowtimetoconsiderhowthedemandsideoftheenergyequationcanrespondtothatbuiltenvironmentisthegreatestsectoralconsumerofenergyand,withinthatsector,housingisinpolepositionaccountingfor28percentofallUKcarbondioxide(CO2)emissions.
IntheUKhousinghastraditionallybeenofmasonryandsincetheearly1920sthishaslargelybeenofcavitypurposewastoensurethatasaturatedexternalleafwouldhavenophysicalcontactwiththeinnerleafapartfromwalltiesandthatwaterwouldbedischargedthroughweepholesatthedamp-proofcoursetheintroductionofthermalregulations,initiallydeemednecessarytoconserveenergyratherthantheplanet,ithasbeencommonpracticetointroduceinsulationintothealongtimeitwasmandatorytopreserveaspacewithinthecavityandalongrearguardbattlewasfoughtbythetraditionaliststopreservethis‘sacredspace’.DefeatwasfinallyconcededwhensomeextensiveresearchbytheBuildingResearchEstablishmentfoundthattherewasnogreaterriskofdamppenetrationwithfilledcavitiesandinfactdampthroughcondensationwasreduced.
SolidmasonrywallswithexternalinsulationarecommonpracticeincontinentalEuropeandarebeginningtomakeanappearanceintheCornwallthePenwithHousingAssociationhasbuiltapartmentsofthisconstructionontheseafront,perhapsthemostchallengingofsituations.
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Theadvantagesofmasonryconstructionare:
●Itisatriedandtestedtechnologyfamiliartohousebuildingcompaniesofallsizes.
●Itisdurableandgenerallyriskfreeasregardscatastrophicfailure–thoughnotfewyearsagotheentireouterleafofauniversitybuildinginPlymouthcollapsedduetothefactthatthewalltieshadcorroded.
●Exposedbrickworkisalowmaintenancesystem;maintenancedemandsriseconsiderablyifitreceivesarenderedfinish.
●Fromtheenergyefficiencypointofview,masonryhomeshavearelativelyhighthermalmasswhichisconsiderablyimprovediftherearehighdensitymasonryinternalwallsandconcretefloors.
Framedconstruction
Volumehousebuildersareincreasinglyresortingtotimber-framedconstructionwithabrickouterskin,makingthemappearidenticaltofullmasonryattractionisthespeedoferectionespeciallywhenelementsarefabricatedoffsite.However,thereisanunfortunatehistorybehindthissystemduetoshortcomingsinqualitycanapplytotimberwhichhasnotbeenadequatelycuredorbuildingsneedtohaveavapourbarriertowallsaswellasroofs.Withtimberframingitisdifficulttoavoidpiercingthecanalsobeproblemsachievinginternalthepurist,theultimatecriticismisthatitisillogicaltohaveaframedbuildingcladinmasonrywhenitcriesoutforapanel,boarded,slateortilehungexternalfinish.
Pressedsteelframesforhomesarenowbeingvigorouslypromotedbythesteelsellingpointisagainspeedoferectionbutwiththeaddedbenefitofaguaranteedqualityintermsofstrengthanddurabilityofthematerial.
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Fromtheenergypointofview,framedbuildingscanaccommodatehighlevelsofinsulationbuthaverelativelypoorthermalmassunlessthisisprovidedbyfloorsandinternalwalls.
Innovativetechniques
PermanentInsulationFormworkSystems(PIFS)arebeginningtomakeanappearanceinprinciplebehindPIFSistheuseofprecisionmouldedinterlockinghollowblocksmadefromaninsulationmaterial,usuallyexpandedcanberapidlyassembledonsiteandthenfilledwithpumpgradetheconcretehassettheresultisahighlyinsulatedwallreadyfortheinstallationofservicesandinternalandexteriorcanachieveaU-valueaslowasW/threestoreystheadditionofsteelreinforcementisnecessary.
Theadvantagesofthissystemare:
●Designflexibility;almostanyplanshapeispossible.
●Easeandspeedoferection;skillrequirementsaremodestwhichiswhyithasprovedpopularwiththeself-builderectorscanachieve5m2permanhourforerectionandplacementofconcrete.
●Thefinishedproducthashighstructuralstrengthtogetherwithconsiderablethermalmassandhighinsulationvalue.
Solardesign
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Passivesolardesign
Sincethesundriveseveryaspectoftheclimateitislogicaltodescribethetechniquesadoptedinbuildingstotakeadvantageofthisfactas‘solardesign’.Themostbasicresponseisreferredtoas‘passivesolardesign’.Inthiscasebuildingsaredesignedtotakefulladvantageofsolargainwithoutanyintermediateoperations.
Accesstosolarradiationisdeterminedbyanumberofconditions:
●thesun’spositionrelativetotheprincipalfacadesofthebuilding(solaraltitudeandazimuth);
●siteorientationandslope;
●existingobstructionsonthesite;
●potentialforovershadowingfromobstructionsoutsidethesiteboundary.
Oneofthemethodsbywhichsolaraccesscanbeevaluatedistheuseofsomeformofsunoftenusedisthestereographicsunchartinwhichaseriesofradiatinglinesandconcentriccirclesallowthepositionofnearbyobstructionstoinsolation,suchasotherbuildings,tobethesamechartaseriesofsunpathtrajectoriesarealsodrawn(usuallyonearcforthe21stdayofeachmonth);alsomarkedarethetimesoftheintersectionoftheobstructions’outlinesandthesolartrajectoriesindicatetimesoftransitionbetweensunlightandshade.Normallyadifferentchartisconstructedforuseatdifferentlatitudes(atabouttwodegreeintervals).
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Sunlightandshadepatternscastbytheproposedbuildingitselfshouldalsobeandcomputerpredictiontechniquesmaybeemployedaswellastechniquessuchasthetestingofphysicalmodelswithaheliodon.
ComputermodellingofshadowscastbythesunfromanypositionisofferedbyIntegratedEnvironmentalSolutions(IES)withits‘Suncast’isauser-friendlyprogramwhichshouldbewellwithinnormalundergraduatecompetence.
Thespacingbetweenbuildingsisimportantifovershadingistobeavoidedduringwintermonthswhenthebenefitofsolarheatgainreachesitsslopingsitesthereisacriticalrelationshipbetweentheangleofslopeandthelevelofexample,ifovershadingistobeavoidedatalatitudeof50N,rowsofhousesona10north-facingslopemustbemorethantwiceasfarapartthanon
10south-facingslope.
Treescanobviouslyobstruct,iftheyaredeciduous,theyperformthedualfunctionofpermittingsolarpenetrationduringthewinterwhilstprovidingadegreeofshadinginthesummer.
Againspacingbetweentreesandbuildingsiscritical.
Passivesolardesigncanbedividedintothreebroadcategories:
●directgain;
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●indirectgain;
●attachedsunspaceorconservatory.
Eachofthethreecategoriesreliesinadifferentwayonthe‘greenhouseeffect’asameansofabsorbingandretaininggreenhouseeffectinbuildingsisthatprocesswhichismimickedbyglobalenvironmentalbuildings,theincidentsolarradiationistransmittedbyfacadeglazingtotheinteriorwhereitisabsorbedbytheinternalsurfacescausing,re-emissionofheatbackthroughtheglazingisblockedbythefactthattheradiationisofamuchlonger
wavelengththantheincomingisbecausethere-emissionisfromsurfacesatamuchlowertemperatureandtheglazingreflectsbacksuchradiationtotheinterior.
Directgain
Directgainisthedesigntechniqueinwhichoneattemptstoconcentratethemajorityofthebuilding’sglazingonthesun-facingradiationisadmitteddirectlyintothespaceexamples30yearsapartaretheauthor’shouseinSheffield,designedin1967andtheHockertonProjectof1998byRobertandBrendamaindesigncharacteristicsare:
●Aperturesthroughwhichsunlightisadmittedshouldbeonthesolarsideofthebuilding,withinabout30ofsouthforthenorthernhemisphere.
●Windowsfacingwestmayposeasummeroverheatingrisk.
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●Windowsshouldbeatleastdoubleglazedwithlowemissivityglass(LowE)asnowrequiredbytheUKBuildingRegulations.
●Themainoccupiedlivingspacesshouldbelocatedonthesolarsideofthebuilding.
●Thefloorshouldbeofahighthermalmasstoabsorbtheheatandprovidethermalinertia,whichreducestemperaturefluctuationsinsidethebuilding.
●Asregardsthebenefitsofthermalmass,forthenormaldailycycleofheatabsorptionandemission,itisonlyaboutthefirst100mmofthicknesswhichisinvolvedinthestoragegreaterthanthisprovidesmarginalimprovementsinperformancebutcanbeusefulinsomelonger-termstorageoptions.
●Inthecaseofsolidfloors,insulationshouldbebeneaththeslab.
●Avapourbarriershouldalwaysbeonthewarmsideofanyinsulation.
●Thickcarpetsshouldbeavoidedoverthemainsunlitandheatabsorbingportionofthefloorifitservesasathermal,withsuspendedtimberfloorsacarpetisanadvantageinexcludingdraughtsfromaventilatedunderfloorzone.
Duringthedayandintotheeveningthewarmedfloorshouldslowlyreleaseitsheat,andthetimeperiodoverwhichithappensmakesitaverysuita
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