博士英语八个单元英翻汉汇总.docx
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博士英语八个单元英翻汉汇总.docx
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博士英语八个单元英翻汉汇总
E-CTranslation
(1)
HowtoChangeYourPointofView
ByCarolineSeebohm
ThefamousDr.EdwardJennerwasbusytryingtosolvetheproblemofsmallpox.Afterstudyingcaseaftercase,hestillfoundnopossiblecure.Hehadreachedanimpasseinhisthinking.Atthispoint,hechangedhistactics.Insteadoffocusingonpeoplewhohadsmallpox,heswitchedhisattentiontopeoplewhodidnothavesmallpox.Itturnedoutthatdairymaidsapparentlynevergotthedisease.FromthediscoverythatharmlesscowpoxgaveprotectionagainstdeadlysmallpoxcamevaccinationandtheendofsmallpoxasscourgeintheWesternworld.
Weoftenreachanimpasseinourthinking.Wearelookingataproblemandtryingtosolveitanditseemsthereisadead-end,an“aporia”[thetechnicalterminlogicmeaning“noopening”].Itisontheseoccasionsthatwebecometense,wefeelpressured,overwhelmed,inastateofstress.Westrugglevainly,fightingtosolvetheproblem.
Dr.Jenner,however,didsomethingaboutthissituation.Hestoppedfightingtheproblemandsimplychangedhispointofview----frompatientstodairymaids.Picturetheprocessgoingsomethinglikethis:
Supposethebrainisacomputer.Thiscomputerhasabsorbedintoitsmemorybankallyourhistory,yourexperiences,yourtraining,yourinformationreceived,throughlife,anditisprogrammedaccordingtoallthisdata.Tochangeyourpointofview,youmustreprogramyourcomputer,thusfreeingyourselftotakethenewideasanddevelopnewwaysoflookingatthings.Dr.Jenner,ineffect,byreprogramminghiscomputer,erasedtheoldwayoflookingathissmallpoxproblemandwasfreetoreceivenewalternatives.
That’sallverywell,youmaysay,buthowdoweactuallydothat?
DoctorandphilosopherEdwarddeBonohascomeupwithatechniqueforchangingourpointofview,andhecallsitLateralThinking.
ThenormalWesternapproachtoaproblemistofightit.Thesaying,“Whenthegoinggetstough,thetoughgetgoing,”epitomizesthisaggressive,combat-readyattitudetowardproblem-solving.Nomatterwhattheproblemis,orthetechniquesavailableforsolvingit,theframeworkproducedbyourWesternwayofthinkingisfight.Dr.deBonocallsthisverticalthinking:
thetraditional,sequential,Aristotelianthinkingoflogic,movingfirmlyfromsteptothenext,liketoyblocksbeingbuiltoneontopoftheother.Theflawis,ofcourse,thatifatanypointoneofthestepsisnotreached,oroneofthetoyblocksisincorrectlyplaced,thenthewholestructurecollapses.Impasseisreached,andfrustration,tension,feelingsoffighttakeover.
Lateralthinking,Dr.deBonosays,isanewtechniqueofthinkingaboutthings----atechniquethatavoidsthisfightaltogether,andsolvestheprobleminanentirelyunexpectedfashion.
E-CTranslation
(2)
Tounderstandthenatureoftheliberalartscollegeanditsfunctioninoursociety,itisimportanttounderstandthedifferencebetweeneducationandtraining.
Trainingisintendedprimarilyfortheserviceofsociety;educationisprimarilyfortheindividual.Societyneedsdoctors,lawyers,engineers,teacherstoperformspecifictasksnecessarytoitsoperation,justasitneedscarpentersandplumbersandstenographers.Trainingsuppliestheimmediateandspecificneedsofsocietysothattheworkoftheworldmaycontinue.Andtheseneeds,ourtrainingcenters—theprofessionalandtradeschools—fill.Butalthougheducationisfortheimprovementoftheindividual,italsoservessocietybyprovidingaleaveningofmenofunderstanding,ofperception,andwisdom.Theyareourintellectualleaders,thecriticsofourculture,thedefendersofourfreetraditions,theinstigatorsofourprogress.Theyservesocietybyexaminingitsfunction;appraisingitsneeds,andcriticizingitsdirection;Theymaybeearningtheirlivingsbypracticingoneoftheprofessions,orinpursuingatrade,orbyengaginginbusinessenterprise.Theymayberichorpoor.Theymayoccupypositionsofpowerandprestige,ortheymaybeengagedinsomehumbleemployment.Withoutthem,however,societyeitherdisintegratesorelsebecomesananthill.
ThedifferencebetweenthetwotypesofstudyislikethedifferencebetweenthedisciplineandexerciseinaprofessionalbaseballtrainingcampandthatofaYgym.Intheone,therecruitistrainingtobecomeaprofessionalbaseballplayerwhowillmakealivingandservesocietybyplayingbaseball;intheother,heistrainingonlytoimprovehisownbodyandmusculature.Thetrainingatthebaseballcampisallrelevant.Therecruitmayspendhourspracticinghowtoslideintosecondbase,notbecauseitisaparticularusefulformofcalisthenicsbutbecauseitisrelevanttothegame.Theexercisewouldstopiftheruleswerechangedsothatslidingtoabasewasmadeillegal.Similarly,thecandidateforthepitchingstaffspendsalotoftimethrowingabaseball,notbecauseitwillimprovehisphysique---itmayhavequitetheoppositeeffect---butbecausepitchingistobehisprincipalfunctionontheteam.AttheYgym,exerciseshavenosuchrelevance.Theintentionistostrengthenthebodyingeneral,andwhenthememberssitdownonthefloorwiththeirlegsoutstretchedandpracticetouchingtheirfingerstotheirtoes,itisnotbecausetheyhopetobecomegalleyslaves,perhapstheonlyoccupationwherethatparticularexercisewouldberelevant.
E-CTranslation(3)
UtilityandPricesTomMcArthur
Ourbasicneedsaresimple,butouradditionalindividualwantsareoftenverycomplex.Commoditiesofdifferentkindssatisfyourwantsindifferentways.Abanana,abottleofmedicineandatextbooksatisfyverydifferentwants.Thebananacannotsatisfythesamewantsasthetextbook.
Thischaracteristicofsatisfyingawantisknownineconomicsasits“utility”.Utility,however,shouldnotbeconfusedwithusefulness.Forexample,asubmarinemayormaynotbeusefulintimeofpeace,butitsatisfiesawant.Manynationswantsubmarines.Economistssaythatutilitydetermines“therelationshipbetweenaconsumerandacommodity”.
Utilityvariesbetweendifferentpeopleandbetweendifferentnations.Avegetariandoesnotwantmeat,butmayratetheutilityofbananasveryhighly,whileameat-eatermayprefersteak.Amountain-republiclikeSwitzerlandhaslittleinterestinasubmarines,whilemarinenationsratethemhighly.
Utilityvariesnotonlyinrelationtoindividualtastesandtogeography,butalsoinrelationtotime.Inwartime,theutilityofbombsishigh,andtheutilityofpianoislow.Utilityisthereforerelatedtoourdecisionsaboutprioritiesinproduction---particularlyinacentrally-plannedeconomy.Theproductionofpianosfallssharplyinwartime.
Theutilityofacommodityisalsorelatedtothequantitywhichisavailabletotheconsumer.Ifpaperisfreelyavailable,peoplewillnotbesointerestedinbuyingtoomuchofit.Ifthereisanexcessofpaper,therelativedemandforpaperwillgodown.Wecansaythattheutilityofacommoditythereforedecreasesastheconsumer’sstockofthatcommodityincreases
Inmosteconomicsystems,thepricesofthemajorityofgoodsandservicesdonotchangeovershortperiodsoftime.Insomesystemsitisofcoursepossibleforanindividualtobargainoverprices,becausetheyarenotfixedinadvance.Ingeneralterms,however,theindividualcannotchangethepricesofthecommoditieshewants.Whenplanninghisexpenditure,hemustthereforeacceptthesefixedprices.Hemustalsopaythissamefixedpricenomatterhowmanyunitshebuys.Aconsumerwillgoonbuyingbananasforaslongashecontinuestobesatisfied.Ifhebuysmore,heshowsthathissatisfactionisstillgreaterthanhisdislikeoflosingmoney.Witheachexcessivepurchase,however,hissatisfactioncompensatesforthelossofmoney.
Apointintimecomeswhenthefinancialsacrificeisgreaterthanthesatisfactionofeatingbananas.Theconsumerwillthereforewillstopbuyingbananasatthecurrentprice.Thebananasareunchanged;theyarenobetterorworsethanbefore.Theirmarginalutilitytotheconsumerhas,however,changed.Ifthepricehadbeenhigher,hemighthaveboughtfewerbananas;ifthepricehadbeenlower,hemighthaveboughtmore.
Itisclearfromthisargumentthatthenatureofacommodityremainsthesame,butitsutilitychanges.Thischangeindicatesthataspecialrelationshipexistsbetweengoodsandservicesontheonehand,andaconsumerandhismoneyontheotherhand.Theconsumer’sdesireforacommoditytendstodiminishashebuysmoreunitsofthatcommodity.EconomistscallthistendencytheLawofDiminishingMarginalUtility.
E-CTranslation(4)
SupplyandDemandBYTomMacArthur
Bananasareatypicalexampleofperishablegoods.By“perishable”wemeangoodswhichcannotbesortedforanylengthoftimewithoutgoingbad.Mostfoodstuffsareinperishablecategory.Suchgoodsareofferedforsaleasquicklyaspossible,andsothesupplyofperishablesandthestockofperishablesatanytimeareusuallythesameinquantity.
Thisisnottrueinthecaseofnon-perishablegoodslikecoal,steelandcars,whichdonotdeteriorateeasily.Thesupplyofcarsonthemarketmaynotbethesameastheactualstockofcarsinthefactories.EconomiststalkabouttheLawofSupply,inwhichariseinpricestendstoincreasesupply,whileafallinpricestendstoreduceit.Ifpricesriseforaparticularcommodity,theriseofcoursewillencourageproducerstomakemore.Ontheotherhand,ifpricesfalleitherlocallyorthroughouttheworld,producerswillreduceproduction.Thiscanresultinseriousdifficultiesformanyproducers,andmaycausethemtogooutofbusinesscompletely,becauseitcan
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