生态旅游英文.docx
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生态旅游英文.docx
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生态旅游英文
Introduction
Worldwide,manycountriesandregionsrichinbiodiversityandpoorineconomyhavebeenvigorouslypromotingecotourismasaconservationtoolintheirprotectedareas(PAs)sincethe1990s.TheseincludeNepal(Bookbinderandothers1998),Indonesia(WalpoleandGoodwin2000,2001),Uganda(AdamsandInfield2003;ArchabaldandNaughton-Treves2001),CentralAfricaRepublic(Blom2000),andCostaRica(Stemandothers2003).China,withafast-growingeconomy,hasalsoadvocatedecotourismtoimprovetheeconomicstatusofreserveadministrationsandlocalcommunities(HanandRen2001;Liuandothers2003).Approximately80%ofChina’snaturereserveshavedevelopedecotourismprogramsandnearly16%hostmorethan100,000visitorsannually(LiandHan2001).Astudyof11naturereservesinChinaindicatesthatthetotalnumberofvisitorsalmostdoubledfrom942,000to1,770,000between1995and1998(Lindbergandothers2003).
Althoughecotourismmightmeandifferentthingstodifferentpeople,itisgenerallyacceptedthatitshouldhavelowimpactsonnature,withagoalofbenefitingbothconservationandthewell-beingoflocalcommunities(Kiss2004).Proponentsofecotourismforconservationoftenadvocatethatthebenefitswouldspursupportforconservationfromlocalcommunities(ArchabaldandNaughton-Treves2001;Gossling1999,2002;Maikhuriandothers2000;MehtaandHeinen2001;Sekhar2003).However,ecotourismoperationsusuallyinvolvemultiplestakehold-ersfrominsideandoutsidethePAs(AdamsandInfield2003).Thesestakeholdersbeardifferentlevelsofcostsofconservationandlikelyexpectrelevantlevelsofbenefitsfromecotourismdevelopment(NaidooandRicketts2006;Wunder2000).Ifthebenefitstolocalstakeholdersarenotproportionaltotheircostsofconservationorasexpected,theanticipatedsupportforconservationmightnotberealized(Chenandothers2005;JimandXu2002;Kiss2004;LaiandNepal2006;WalpoleandGoodwin2001;WalpoleandLeader–Williams2002).Ifthebenefitstooutsideinvestorsdonotreflecttheirinvestmentsorexpectations,theymightwithdrawsupport.Activities,suchasfarming,gatheringfuelwood,andecotourismconductedbydifferentstakeholderswillhavevaryingdegreesofimpactonbiodiversity.Therefore,distributionofbenefitstooffsetcostsandsacrificesamongstakeholdersisimportantandneedsspecialattention(SpiteriandNepal2006).
Stakeholdersmightbenefiteconomicallyfromecotour-ismthroughinvestment,employment,andsellingproducts.Severalfactorscanaffecthowmuchtheycanbenefit.Ecotourismusuallyneedsalargeinvestmentfromnationalgovernmentsand/orforeignsourcesbecauseofthepoorlocaleconomyinPAs(Stemandothers2003;Tosun1998).Asarelativelynewindustrytolocalresidents(oftenfarmers),specialskillsnecessaryforecotourismarenotavailable(JimandXu2002;LaiandNepal2006).Eco-tourismmightalsorequirefarmerstakeholderstoadjusttheiroftentraditionalproductionsystemsandtechniquestomaximizethepotentialbenefitsfromecotourism(Luandothers2006).Appropriateinstitutionaldesigncanfacilitatetheprocessofspreadingthebenefitsamongstakeholders.Wunder(2000)reportedtheeffectivenessofdifferentmodesoftourismparticipationinindigenousgroupsofEcuador’sCuyabenoReserve.Participationmodesfromautonomousoperationstopuresalaryemploymentwerecombinedwithtourismspecializationandlocalorganiza-tiontoimprovelocaleconomicbenefitsandboostconservationsupport.
Methods
StudySite
WolongNatureReservewasestablishedin1963withanareaof200km2andexpandedtoitscurrentsizeof2000km2in1975(Heandothers1996).ItislocatedinSichuanProvince,southwesternChina(latitude30L450–31L250N,longitude103L520–103L240E;Fig.1),betweentheSichuanBasinandtheQinghai-TibetPlateauandischar-acterizedbyhighmountainsanddeepvalleys.Thereservehasnearly4000plantspeciesandmorethan2200insectandanimalspecies,includingtheendangeredgiantpandas(Ailuropodamelanoleuca),oneofthemostcharismaticanimalsintheworldandthemainattractionfordomesticandforeigntourists.In1980,WolongNatureReservebecameamemberoftheManandBiosphereProgramme’sWorldNetworkofBiosphereReservesand,in2006,itwasinscribedontheWorldHeritageList(UNESCOWorldHeritageCentre2006).
Thereserveencompassesseveralclimatezones.Ithasacoolsummer,withanaverageannualtemperatureof8.9LC(datafrommultiyearobservationsinShawanWeatherStationwithanelevationof1920m,wherethereserveheadquartersislocated;WolongNatureReserve1998).Thismakesitanidealsummerresortforpeoplefromtwomajoradjacentcities,DujiangyanandChengdu,inSichuanProvince(Fig.1).Itisalsonearseveralnationallyandinternationallyknowntourismsites:
Jiuzhaigou,Huang-long,andSiguniang(Fig.1),whichhavebeenheavilypromotedastouristsdestinationsbytheprovincialgovernmentsince2000(SichuanDepartmentofTourism2003).Afteralongdebateinthe1990s,ecotourismdevelopmentinthereservewasofficiallyapprovedinOctober2002bytheStateForestryAdministration(YangandYang2002).
ThereserveisadministratedbytheWolongAdministrativeBureau.In2000,thereweremorethan4400localruralresidentslivinginWolongandGengdatownships(Fig.1),andmostofthemwerefarmers.Farmers’activities,includingloggingforfuelwood,agriculture,collectionofherbalmedicinalplants,andranching,havesignificantlydegradedandfragmentedgiantpandahabitatinthereserve(Schallerandothers1985).Liuandothers(1999)showeddistance–decaytrendsofthesehumanactivities’intensityandfrequencyandtheirnegativeimpactsonpandahabitatsuitability;forinstance,areaswithin900mofhumanresidentialsitesweresostronglydisturbedthattheyhavebecomeunsuitableforwildpandas,eventothepointofeliminatingallbioticandabiotichabitatcharacteristicsthatareessentialforpandas.Abouttwo-thirdsofthehumansettlementswerelocatedintherelativelyflatareasofthereservealongthemainroad,whichistheirmainconnectiontotheoutsideworld.Theotherhouseholdslivedintheremoteareasathighelevationswithlimitedaccesstotheroad.Theyaregenerallypoorerthanhouseholdslivingattheroadside(WolongNatureReserve2005b).
Approximately480reservestaff(thisnumberdoesnotincludetheirfamilymembersortheretiredstaff)inhabitedthe‘‘downtown’’areasofthetwotownships(hereafter,wecallthemurbanresidentsinsidethereserve)(WolongNatureReserve2000b).Yearlyincomepercapitaforruralresidentsin2000wasabout1400Yuan(1USD=8.24Yuanin2000),lessthanone-fifthofthereservestaff’saverageannualincomeinthesameyear(WolongNatureReserve2005a).Between2000andtheofficialendorse-mentforecotourismin2002,theyearlyincomefromtourismwasestimatedtoaccountforonly2.9%ofruralhouseholds’annualincome(WolongNatureReserve2005a).
Before2000,littleprogresswasmadeintourismdevelopment,andecotourismwasconductedatasmallscale.Manytouristsjustpassedbyanddidnotstayinthereservelongerthanonenight(SichuanDepartmentofForestryandothers2002).After2000,internalandexternalinvestmentpouredintothereserveforextensiveinfra-structureconstruction.Thetotalnumberoftouristsin2000was130,000(SichuanDepartmentofForestryandothers2002).By2005,thenumberhadincreasedto206,100(TourismDevelopmentDepartment,WolongAdministra-tionBureau).PandasandtheforestedlandscapewerereportedasthetoptworeasonspeoplevisitedWolonginasurveyconductedin2006(WeiLiu,unpublisheddata).
DataCollectionandAnalysis
TostudyeconomicbenefitsofecotourisminPAs,WalpoleandGoodwin(2000)summarizedthatthetraditionalmethodsusedineconomics(i.e.,input–output,typicalforimpactanalysis)werenotfeasiblebecausethenecessarydataareoftenunavailableandtherearenoaccounting/taxsystemsinlessdevelopedregions.Theysuggestedusingproxyandindirectmeasures,obtainedthroughsurveysofbusinesses(supplyside)andtourists(demandside),toestimatepossiblebenefitsfromecotourism.Thismethodwasappliedinourstudy,asinotherresearchreportedintheliterature(Chenandothers2005;JimandXu2002;Wunder2000).Employmentandgoodsaretraditionalmeasurementsofeconomicbenefits,butwithoutreliableaccounting/taxsystems,businessrevenueandprofitdataaredifficulttoobtain.Incontrast,dataforinvestmentinecotourisminfrastructureand/orbusinessarerelativelyeasilyobtainedthroughinterviews,andinvestmentcanserve,tosomeextent,asaproxymeasurementofprofits/revenue(SpiteriandNepal2006).Thus,wechosetouseinvestment,employment,andgoodsasdirectandindirectmeasurementsofeconomicbenefitsfromecotourism.
Weobservedthatinthereservetherewerethreeprimarytypesofecotourismbusinesspotentiallygeneratingbene-fits:
hotels/restaurants,souvenirshops,andinfrastructuralconstruction.Thefirsttwotypesaretypicalinecotourismdevelopmentandareoftenreportedintheliterature,whereaslittleattentionispaidtoinfrastructuralconstruc-tion.Infrastructuralconstructionisimportantbecauseitusuallyoccursduringthestartphaseinthelifecycleofecotourismdevelopment(Butler1980)andmightgeneratesubstantialbenefitstovarioustypesofstakeholdersduringthisperiod.
Duringthesummerof2003,weinterviewedthepro-prietorsormanagersofall45hotels/restaurants,74souvenirshops(36permanentsitesand38temporarysitesorstreetvendors),and28infrastructuralconstructionpro-jects.Onlythoseprojectsr
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