都市规划的可持续发展外文文献翻译中英文翻译外文翻译.docx
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都市规划的可持续发展外文文献翻译中英文翻译外文翻译.docx
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都市规划的可持续发展外文文献翻译中英文翻译外文翻译
JournalofPlanningEducationandResearch,2000(20):
133
PlanningforMetropolitanSustainability
StephenM.Wheeler
TheUniversityofCalifornia
Abstract:
Thisarticleestablishesaframeworkforthinkingaboutsustainabledevelopmentinthemetropolitancontextbyinvestigatingtheoriginsofthesustainabilityconceptanditsmeaningswhenappliedtourbandevelopment,surveyinghistoricalapproachestoplanningtheurbanregion,andanalyzingwaysinwhichacontextcanbecreatedforregionalsustainabilityplanning.Sustainabilityisseenasrequiringaholistic,long-termplanningapproach,aswellascertaingeneralpolicydirectionssuchascompacturbanform,reductionsinautomobileuse,protectionofecosystems,andimprovedequity.Basedontheexperienceofthreesampleregions,thearticlesuggestsalong-termstrategicapproachinwhichvisionstatements,oalitionbuilding,institutionaldevelopment,intergovernmentalincentiveframeworks,indicators,publicinvolvement,andsociallearninghelpcreatearegionalcontextinwhichsustainabledevelopmentisincreasinglypossible.
Keywords:
Sustainabledevelopment;MetropolitanPlanning;Ecologicalprotection
Introduction:
Manyaspectsofsustainabledevelopmentarebestaddressedatthemetropolitanregionalscale.Subjectsbenefitingparticularlyfromregionalcoordinationincludelanduse,transportation,airquality,waterquality,ecosystemprotection,affordablehousingprovision,andsocialequity.Theproblemisthatthisisoftenthemostdifficultlevelatwhichtofindthepoliticalwillandinstitutionalcapacitytobringaboutchange.ThesedifficultieshavebeenparticularlygreatinNorthAmerica,whereregionalplanningstructureshavebeenweakandincentivestothinkintermsofthelong-termsustainabilityofmetropolitanregionsareoftenlacking.Nevertheless,anumberofmetropolitansustainability-relatedinitiativesareunderway,andmorearelikelytoappearinthefuture.Thequestionishowplanners,politicians,andactivistscanbestdeveloptheseorhelpthemsucceed.
Themainbody:
Thisarticlewillinvestigatetheoriginsofthesustainabilityconceptanditsmeaningswhenappliedtourbandevelopment,brieflysurveyhistoricalapproachestoplanningtheurbanregion,andanalyzesomeofconditionsthroughwhichimprovedmetropolitansustainabilityplanningmightcomeabout.Thegreatestemphasishereisonhowacontextcanbecreatedinwhichmetropolitansustainabilityplanningcanoccur,ratherthanonspecifictechniquesorpolicydirections.Thatisbecause
(1)manygeneraldirectionsforsustainabilityplanningarealreadywellknown,thoughspecifictacticscanbeargued;
(2)existingmetropolitansustainabilityinitiativesinNorthAmericaarequitepreliminaryandprovidefewgroundsforevaluation;and(3)themostpressingquestionformanyobserversishowmoresubstantialeffortsmightcomeabout.ThefollowingdiscussionisbasedonreviewoftheliteraturerelatedtobothregionalplanningandsustainabledevelopmentandusesasexamplesthreeNorthAmericanmetropolitanareas—Portland,Toronto,andtheSanFranciscoBayArea—knownforavarietyofprogressiveregionalplanninginitiativesthatinonewayoranothercanbeseenaspromotingsustainability.
1SustainabilityintheMetropolitanContext
Althoughithasrootsinthelatenineteenth-century“sustainedyield”forestrypracticesoriginatinginGermany,thewordsustainableappearstohavebeenfirstusedinreferencetohumandevelopmentpatternsin1972inthebest-sellingstudyofglobalresourceuse.Aftermodelingthecatastrophiccollapseofglobalsystemsmidwaythroughthetwenty-firstcenturyunderthen-currentpopulationandresourceusetrends,theauthorsstatedtheirbeliefthat“itispossibletoalterthesegrowthtrendsandtoestablishaconditionofecologicalandeconomicstabilitythatissustainablefarintothefuture”.Anumberofothereventsintheearly1970salsopropelledreconsiderationoflong-termdevelopmenttrends,mostnotablytheUnitedNationsConferenceontheHumanEnvironmentheldinStockholmin1972andthe1973energycrisis.Theconstituencythattooktheleadindevelopingearlyworksonsustainabilityconsistedofinternationallyorientedenvironmentalists.Ethicistswerealsoinvolvedindevelopingthesustainabilityconceptduringthemid-1970s,motivatedbysocialjusticeconcerns.A1974conferenceoftheWorldCouncilofChurchesissuedacallfora“sustainablesociety,”andtheearliestbookspecificallyfocusedoncreationofasustainablesocietywaspublishedtwoyearslaterbyatheologianwhoattendedthatconference.Meanwhile,environmentallyorientedeconomistsformedathirdimportantconstituency.WriterssuchasHermanDalyandKennethBouldingcritiquedmodernistnotionsof“growth”and“progress”andproposedtheradicalideathatlong-termhumanandecologicalwell-beingmightbebetterservedbyasteady-stateeconomy.Theneedtoreconcileeconomic,environmental,andsocialjusticeneedswastobecomeanenduringthemeofsustainabledevelopmentdiscussions.
Inthelate1980sandearly1990s,thesustainabledevelopmentconceptenteredthemainstreaminternationallywiththepublicationofthereportoftheWorldCommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopment.Thetideofinternationalliteratureonthesubjectgrewrapidlyatthistime.Unfortunately,noperfectdefinitionofsustainabledevelopmentemerged.AlthoughtheBrundtlandReportproducedthemostwidelyusedformulation—developmentthat“meetstheneedsofthepresentwithoutcompromisingtheabilityoffuturegenerationstomeettheirownneeds”—thisversionhasmanyproblems.Foronething,itisanthropocentric;foranother,itintroducesthehighlysubjectiveconceptofneeds.Otherdefinitionsareequallyproblematic.Arisingoutoflandscapeecology,thenotionof“carryingcapacity”hasoftenbeenemphasized.Butalthoughthisapproachhasimportanteducationalvalue,thehumancarryingcapacityofbothregionallandscapesandtheplanetasawholeisverydifficulttodetermine,giventhemobilityofhumanculturesandtheirabilitytosubstituteforscarceresources.Athirdmaindefinitionalapproachreliesoneconomicconceptsof“naturalcapital.”AccordingtoBritisheconomistDavidPearce,sustainabledevelopment“isbasedontherequirementthatthenaturalcapitalstockshouldnotdecreaseovertime.”However,attemptstomeasurenaturalcapital(letalonesocialcapital)quicklydescendintoamethodologicalquagmireandrequireahighdegreeoffaithintheabilityofeconomicstovaluenoneconomicentities.
Thedefinitionalstrategysuggestedhereistodefinesustainabledevelopmentsimplyas“developmentthatimprovesthelong-termhealthofhumanandecologicalsystems.”Thisapproachemphasizesthelong-termperspectiveofsustainabilityplanningbutavoidsfruitlessdebatesovercarryingcapacity,needs,naturalcapital,orsustainableendstates.Intheory,anevolvingconsensusonhealthydirectionscanbeagreedonthroughparticipatoryandcommunicativeplanningprocesses,andprogresscanbemeasuredbymeansofvariousperformanceindicators.
Untiltheearly1990s,fewsustainabilityadvocatesfocusedoncitiesorpatternsofurbandevelopment.However,duringthe1990s,“sustainablecity”programsbegantoappearinmanypartsoftheworld—someresultingfromgrassrootsactivism,somebasedonmunicipalinitiative,somesupportedbynationalgovernments,andsomefacilitatedbymultilateralentitiessuchastheEuropeanCommunity,theWorldBank,andUNagencies.TheEarthSummit’sAgenda21documentbecamethebasisforLocalAgenda21planninginEurope.
Sustainabledevelopmentiswidelyseenashavinganumberofimplicationsforthedesignandplanningofurbanregions.Atthemetropolitanlevel,somepolicydirectionsappearparticularlyimportant,givendevelopmenttrendsofrecentdecades.Inparticular,stepstohaltsuburbansprawlarecrucial,asistheneedtoendthegrowthinpercapitaautomobileuse.Affordablehousingisaquietcrisisinmanyregions.Underlyingalltheseproblemareas,ofcourse,arethequestionsofwhethereconomicincentivescanbechangedtopromotesustainabilitywithintheregionandwhetherurbanpopulationscanbestabilizedinthelongrun.
Anumberofsustainabilityproposalshavebeendevelopedforparticularcitiesandregionsbybothlocalgovernmentsandnongovernmentalorganizations(e.g.,SustainableCambridgeCoalition1992;SustainableSeattleCoalition1995;CityofSanFrancisco1997).Asofyet,mostoftheseplanshaveseenfewsystematicattemptsatimplementation.SanFrancisco’splan,forexample,wasapprovedtosubstantialpublicattentionin1997andresultedinthecreationofanewDepartmentoftheEnvironment,butthenlanguishedasthisdepartmentreceivedlittlefundingandenvironmentalmatterswerelowonthenewmayor’slistofpriorities.
2HistoricalApproachestoMetropolitanPlanning
Abriefreviewofthehistoricalevolutionofmetropolitanplanningcanhelpsetthecontextforaconsiderationofhowsustainability-relatedregionalplanningmightcomeabout.Modernmetropolitanplanningisoftenseenasbeginninginthenineteenthcentury,whentherapidgrowth,overcrowding,andservicedemandsofindustrialcitiesledtotheneedforregionwidegovernmentalstructures.OneresponseinBritainwastocreateinstitutionssuchasLondon’sMetropolitanBoardofWorks,organizedin1855tocoordinatepolice,fire,sewer,andpublichealthservicesacrosstheGreaterLondonarea.ThisagencylaterevolvedintotheLondonCountyCouncil,whichplayedaveryactiveroleinprovidinghousingwithinthemetropolitanareaduringtheearlytwentiethcentury.Ratherthancr
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- 都市 规划 可持续发展 外文 文献 翻译 中英文