未来的小规模采矿环境和社会经济的视角外文文献翻译.docx
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未来的小规模采矿环境和社会经济的视角外文文献翻译.docx
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未来的小规模采矿环境和社会经济的视角外文文献翻译
英文原文
Thefutureofsmall-scalemining:
environmentalandsocioeconomicperspectives
GavinM.Hilson
EnvironmentalPolicyandManagementGroup(EPMG),ImperialCollegeofScience,TechnologyandMedicine,RoyalSchoolofMines,PrinceConsortRoad,LondonSW72BP,UK
Abstract
Althoughsmall-scaleminingprovidesinnumerablebenefitstotheruralinhabitantsandgovernmentsofthedevelopingworld,itsoperationshavebeenresponsibleforawiderangeofenvironmentalandsocioeconomiccomplications.Thisarticleexaminestheimpactsofsmall-scalemining,andprovidesaperspectiveonthefutureoftheindustry.Itfirstdescribes
small-scaleminingactivity,emphasizingkeydefinitionalandlocationalcharacteristics.Next,itexaminesthesocioeconomicimpactsoftheindustry,alongwithitsenvironmentalproblems.Thearticleconcludesbydiscussingthefutureofsmall-scaleminingindevelopingcountries.
Keywords:
Small-scalemining;Developingcountries;Environment;Future
+Introduction
Small-scalemininghasbecomeanindispensableindustryinthedevelopingworld.Itsoperations,whichfeaturethemostrudimentaryoftechnologiesandmanagementpractices,provideemploymenttomillionsofruralinhabitants.Furthermore,therevenuesaccruedfromactivitiescontributepositivelytothemineralexportbasesandforeignexchangeearningsofanumberofcountries.
Atthesametime,however,severalproblemsexistwithinsmall-scaleminingregions.Inadditiontocausingsignificantpollutionandlanddegradation,theindustryisrenownedforitsunsafepractices.Moreover,diseasessuchasAIDSandmalaria,whichareprevalentwithinresidentcommunities,arespreadingatanunprecedentedrate.WithoperationsincreasinginabundancethroughoutAfrica,AsiaandLatinAmerica,itisimperativethatgovernmentsbegintacklingkeysmall-scaleminingissueswithimprovedstrategy.
Thepurposeofthisarticleistoexamineenvironmentalimpactsofsmall-scaleminingindevelopingcountries,andtoprovideaperspectiveonthefutureoftheindustry.Thearticlefirstdescribessmall-scaleminingactivity,emphasizingkeydefinitionalandlocationalcharacteristics.Thearticleconcludeswithabriefdiscussiononthefutureofsmall-scaleminingindevelopingcountries.
+Anoverviewofsmall-scalemining
Mininghasoccurredonasmall-scaleforwellover2000years.Thereisawealthofevidenceindicatingthatseveralearlycivilizations,includingtheRomans,Greeks,Egyptians,andmostsuccessfulpre-colonialAfricangroups,engagedinwidespreadartisanalmineralextractionandwinningprocesses.Infact,theexploitationofmineralsonasmall-scalewaslargelyresponsibleforthewealthandstrengthofmostancientempiresandcultures.
Althoughseveraldefinitionshaveemerged,‗small-scalemining‘isnowusedasan
all-encompassinglabelforthenon-mechanized,labourintensiveactivitiesoftheminingsector1.Whatmakesituniqueisitsoperationsandmanagementtechniques.Unlikelarge-scalecounterparts,whichcommonlyfeaturestate-of-the-artmachineryandskilledworkers,small-scaleminesareusuallyrudimentaryindesign,andarecharacterizedbyhighlymanualprocesses.Thetypicalmineoperatingonasmallscaleisaproducer,oftensporadically,oflimitedamountsofmineralfromdepositswithfewknownorereserves,and,whencomparedtolarge-scalemining,requirementsintermsofimplementationtimeand
initialinvestmentareextremelylow,andemploymentper-unitoutputishigh(Figure1),sinceashortageofadequatemachineryleadstoheavydependenceonmanuallabour.Inmostcases,technologydoesnotextendbeyondthebasicshovelandpick.
Fig.1.Small-vslarge-scaleminingcomparativeprofiles[4]
Small-scalemininghasbecomeanindispensablepartofthesocioeconomicfabricofthedevelopingworld.Theindustryhasnotonlytraditionallyprovidedawealthofemploymentopportunitiestoruralinhabitantsbutinrecentyears,hasalsocontributedsignificantlytoanumberofcountries‘mineralexportbasesandforeignexchangeearnings.
Atthesametime,however,operations,collectively,havecausedsignificantenvironmentalproblemsworldwide.Mostofthesecomplicationsareadirectresultoftherudimentarynatureofactivities,andthefactthatgenerally,environmentalawarenessislowindustry-wide.Theaimofthediscussionthatfollowsistoputintoperspectiveboththeenvironmentalandsocioeconomicimplicationsofsmall-scalemining.Acompleteunderstandingoftheseissuesiskeytofacilitating
andpromotingasustainable2industryforfuturegenerations.
+Socioeconomicperspectives
Thesocialandeconomicimportanceofsmall-scaleminingcannotbeoverstated.Althoughitisestimatedbymanythattheindustryemploysapproximatelysixmillionpeople,ithasrecentlybeenreportedbytheInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO)thatamoreprecisefigureis11.5–13million.Itisquitepossible,however,thatasmanyas100millionpeopleworldwidedependupontheindustry—bothdirectlyandindirectly—fortheirlivelihoods(needlesstosay,amorerealisticestimateis30million).AsTable1depicts,insomecountries,suchasBrazilandChina,thesmalls-caleminingemploymentcontingentisinthemillions.Themajorityareengagedingoldandpreciousstoneextractionandprocessing,althoughanotablepercentageisinvolvedintheminingofawiderangeofindustrialminerals;suchisthecaseinChina(coal),Chile(copper)andZambia(dimensionstones).Occupationsrangefromsimplesedimenttransportationtasks,tomorecomplicatedmercuryprocessingduties.Ininstanceswhereentirefamiliesareworkingatsites,typically,menengageinheavyliftingandstrenuousactivities;womenperformorepanningand
‗sorting‘tasks;andchildrenserveascouriers,transportinggoodsandorefromoneareaofasitetoanother.Apartfromtheobviousemploymentbenefits,however,small-scaleminingcontributessignificantlytothemineralresourcebasesandexportearningsofanumberofdevelopingcountries.
Table1
Small-scaleminingoperationsandemploymenttotalsinselecteddevelopingcountries
Regularizationhaslargelybeenresponsiblefortheincreasedproductionachievedinthesmall-scaleminingindustryinrecentyears.Inthepast,small-scaleminingwasperceivedasinformal,andwasnotrecognizedinternationallyasanindustry.Thetrend,therefore,appearstobe
increasedlegalizationandregularizationworldwideinasectorthathastraditionallynotbeenperceivedasbeingeconomicallysignificant.
Twoparticularlydisturbingissuesthathavebeenbroughttotheforefrontofinternationalsmall-scaleminingagendasinrecentyearsarehealthandsafety,andlabourconcerns.Infact,small-scalemininghasacquiredareputationforbeinginherentlyunsafeandinhumane.Asfarassafetyisconcerned,pitsaretypicallyconstructedhaphazardly,leadingtorockfalls,cave-insandventilationcomplications.Moreover,explosives,whichhavebeenbannedforuseinsmall-scaleminingdistrictsbyanumberofgovernments,areoftenusedcarelessly,resultingininjuryanddeath.Overall,theseandrelatedsafetyproblemsareattributabletoacombinationofalackoftraining,improperinspectiononthepartofgovernmentalauthorities,andviolationofregulations.Tosummarize,sociallyandeconomically,small-scaleminingprovidesnumerousworkopportunitiesforruralinhabitantsofthedevelopingworld,andmakespositivecontributionstothemineralbasesandexportearningsofanumberofcountries.Atthesametime,however,sitesareinherentlyunsafe,serveasvectorsforwaterbornediseases,andfeatureoverworkedandunderpaidfemaleandchildlabourers.Assmall–scaleminingoperationsareincreasinginbothnumberandsizethroughouttheworld,itiscrucialthat,governmentstaketheseissuesintocarefulconsideration,andbeginimplementingmeasurestoimprovesocialquality-of-lifeinandaroundsites.
4.Environmentalperspectives
Inspiteoftheabove-mentionedissues,themostseriousproblemsinthesmallscaleminingindustryareenvironmentalinnature.Pollutionfrommercuryisperhapsthemostsignificant,asalmostallAfrican,LatinAmericanandAsiancountrieswithflourishingsmall-scalegoldminingsegmentshavereportedsomecontaminationcomplicationasaresultofitsuseasamineralprocessingagent.Inaprocessknownasamalgamation,mercuryisappliedtogold-aggregatedsediment,whichresultsinapastyamalgam.This,inturn,isburned,generallyintheopenair,toproducethefinalgoldproduct.Inorganicmercury,however,whenreleasedintotheenvironment,istransformedintotoxicmethylmercury,which,insufficientquantities,isdeleterioustobothplantandaquaticlife,andharmfultohumanhealth.
Anotherenvironmentalproblemthatpersiststhroughouttheindustryisexcessivelanddegradation.Asamigratoryactivity,small-scaleminingrequirescontinuouspittingandtrenching.Moreover,asprospectivegeologicaldepositsarefixed,quiteoften,masstractsofforestareremovedandriversaredivergedintheprocessofsearchingforore.Mostofthelandthatisexcavatedisnotproperlyreclaimed,resultingin‗potholed‘landscapes.
Inthepast10–15years,bothoftheaforementionedenvironmentalproblemshaveintensifiedbecausemuchofthesmall-scaleminingindustryhasexpandedinananarchicmanner.Further,theeffortsmadebyregionalgovernmentstoaddresstheseandrelatedimpactshavebeenmarginalatbest.Infact,mostoftheinitiativesundertakenhavenotbeenenvironmentalpersebutratheractionsaimedatimprovingtheefficiencyofoperations.Onepromisinginitiativeisthereclamationbond,which,in
caseswheregovern
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