语言学导论要点 第14章.docx
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语言学导论要点 第14章.docx
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语言学导论要点第14章
Chapter1
Introduction
1.1Linguistics
1.1.1Definitionoflinguistics
(1)Natureoflinguistics:
Linguistics(asabranchofscience)isthescientific(orsystematic)studyoflanguage.
(2)Subjectmatteroflinguistics:
Linguisticsstudiesallnaturallanguages,livingordead.
(3)Purposesoflinguistics:
Linguisticsaimstoanswertwoquestions,i.e.“Whatislanguage?
”“Howdoeslanguagework?
”(oritaimstodiscoverthenatureoflanguageandthewaysinwhichitworks).
(4)Principleoflinguistics:
Linguisticsisasciencebecauseitisguidedbythreecanonsofscience:
(i)Exhaustiveness:
thoroughnessintheexaminationofmaterials;
(ii)Consistency:
nocontradictionbetweenpartsofstatements;
(iii)Economy:
preferenceforshorterstatementsoranalyses.
(5)Methodsoflinguistics:
Linguisticsemploysscientificmethodsofobservation,recordingandanalysis,etc.
1.1.2Linguisticsversustraditionalgrammar
(1)Natureoftraditionalgrammar:
Traditionalgrammaristhestudyoflanguageintheperiodbeforelinguisticscameintobeing.ItisbasedonearliergrammarsofLatinorGreekandemphasizessuchmattersascorrectness,linguisticpurism,literaryexcellence,theuseofLatinmodelsandthepriorityofthewrittenlanguage.
(2)Differenceoflinguisticsfromtraditionalgrammar:
(i)Linguisticsdescribeslanguageasitis(i.e.isdescriptive)whiletraditionalgrammarlaysdownrulesofcorrectness(i.e.isprescriptive);
(ii)Linguisticsregardsspeechasprimarywhiletraditionalgrammarregardswritingasbasic;
(iii)LinguisticsdescribeseachlanguageonitsownmeritswhiletraditionalgrammarisbasedonLatinandtriestoimposetheLatingrammaronotherlanguages.
1.1.3UseofStudyingLinguistics
Linguisticsrevealsthenature,propertiesandlawsoflanguage.Asitbenefitsfrommanyrelateddisciplines,italsobenefitssuchareasaslanguagelearning,languageteaching,literarystudies,psychology,sociology,anthropology,andevenphilosophy.
1.1.4Scopeoflinguistics
(1)Microlinguisticsversusmacrolinguistics:
Microlinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinitselfwhilemacrolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinrelationtosomethingelse.(Roughlyparalleltotheabovedistinctionarethedistinctionsbetweenformalandfunctionallinguistics,andtheoreticallinguisticsandappliedlinguistics.)
(2)Branchesofmicrolinguistics:
Microlinguisticsasthestudyoflanguageinitselfincludessuchbranchesasphonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semanticsandpragmatics.
(i)Phonetics(isabranchoflinguisticswhich)studiesthecharacteristicsofthesoundsoflanguageintermsoftheirproduction,transmissionandperception;
(ii)Phonologystudiesthepatternsandfunctionsofsoundsofalanguage;
(iii)Morphologystudiesthestructureofwordsofalanguage;
(iv)Syntaxstudiesthestructureofsentencesofalanguage;
(v)Semanticsstudiesthemeaningoflanguageinitsformalaspects;
(vi)Pragmaticsstudiestheuseoflanguage(orlanguageinuse).
(3)Branchesofmacrolinguistics:
Macrolinguisticsasthestudyoflanguageinrelationtootherthingsincludessuchbranchesasdiscourseanalysis,psycholinguistics,neurolinguistics,cognitivelinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropologicallinguistics,computationallinguistics,corpuslinguistics,mathematicallinguistics,appliedlinguistics,educationallinguistics,stylistics,forensiclinguistics,clinicallinguistics,translationstudies(translatology),andmanyothers.
(i)Discourseanalysis(ortextlinguistics)studiesthestructureandfunctionofpiecesoflanguage(ortexts)incontext;
(ii)Psycholinguisticsstudiesthementalstructureandprocessesof(theacquisition,comprehensionandproductionof)language;
(iii)Neurolinguisticsstudiestheneurologicalstructureandprocessesof(theprocessingandrepresentationof)language(especiallythedisturbancesoflanguageprocessingcausedbythedamageofthebrain);
(iv)Cognitivelinguisticsstudiesthecognitivestructureandprocessesoflanguage(especiallytheconceptualandexperientialbasisoflinguisticcategories);
(v)Sociolinguisticsstudiesthesocialaspectsoflanguage(ortherelationsbetweenlanguageandsociety);
(vi)Anthropologicallinguisticsstudiestheanthropologicalaspectsoflanguage(especiallylanguageincross-culturalsettings);
(vii)Computationallinguisticsstudieslanguagewiththehelpofcomputertechnology;
(viii)Corpuslinguisticsstudieslanguagethroughthebuildingandanalysisoflanguagecorpuses(oftenwiththehelpofcomputers);
(ix)Mathematicallinguisticsstudiesthemathematicalpropertiesoflanguage(usuallythroughtheuseofmathematicalconcepts);
(x)Appliedlinguisticsstudiesotherareasofexperiencethroughtheapplicationoflinguistics,especiallyforeignlanguagelearningandteaching;
(xi)Educationallinguisticsstudiestheuseoflanguageinmother-tongueeducation;
(xii)Stylisticsstudiesthedifferentvarietiesorstylesoflanguageinrelationtotheirfunctions,especiallytheliterarystyleinrelationtoliteraryeffects;
(xiii)Forensiclinguisticsstudieslinguisticevidencesforlegalpurposes;
(xiv)Clinicallinguisticsstudieslanguagedisorders;
(xv)Translationstudies(ortranslatology)studiescross-language,cross-culturalcommunicationwiththehelpoflinguistics(andotherdisciplines).
1.2Language
1.2.1DefinitionofLanguage
Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.
(i)Languageisasystembecauseitisorganizedandoperatesaccordingtorulesorprinciples;
(ii)Languageisarbitrarybecausethereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenitsformandmeaning;
(iii)Languageisvocalbecauseitsprimarymediumissound(orvoice);
(iv)Languageisusedforhumancommunicationbecauseitishuman-specificandmainlyfunctionsasameansofcommunication.
1.2.2Originoflanguage
Linguists’hypothesesoftheoriginoflanguageinclude:
(i)Ding-DongTheory:
AccordingtoM.Müller,languagedevelopedfromprimitivemangivingvocalexpressiontoobjectsheencountered;
(ii)Sing-SongTheory:
AccordingtoOttoJespersen,languagedevelopedfromprimitiveritualsongsofpraise;
(iii)Pooh-PoohTheory:
AccordingtoL.H.Gray,languagerosefrominterjectionsorexclamationsexpressingthespeaker’semotions;
(iv)Yo-He-HoTheory:
AccordingtoL.Noiré,languageoriginatedfromthecriesutteredduringstrainofwork;
(v)Ta-TaTheory:
AccordingtoR.Paget,languagecamefromthecombinationofsomegesturesandtonguemovements.
(vi)Bow-WowTheory:
Languagearosefromimitationofanimalcriesorothernaturalsounds.
1.2.3Designfeaturesoflanguage
AccordingtoC.F.Hockett(1958),languagehasthefollowingsevendesignfeaturesthatsetitapartfromanimalcrysystemsandmakeithuman-specific:
(i)Arbitrariness:
Nologicalconnectionbetweenthesoundandmeaningoflanguage;
(ii)Duality:
Theorganizationoflanguageintotwolevels—alevelofmeaninglesssoundswhichcombineintoasecondlevelofmeaningfullargerunits;
(iii)Productivityorcreativity:
Man’sabilitytoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesinalanguage,includingnewsentences;
(iv)Interchangeabilityorreciprocity:
Thefactthatmancanbothproduceandreceivemessagesandhisroleasspeakerandhearercanbeexchangedatease;
(v)Displacement:
Thefactthatlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutthingswhicharenothereandnow;
(vi)Specialization:
Thefactthatlanguageisaspecializedactivityandmandoesnothaveatotalphysicalinvolvementintheactofspeaking.
(vii)Culturaltransmission:
Thefactthatlanguageisculturallyinsteadofgeneticallytransmitted.
1.2.4Functionsoflanguage
Languagecanbeusedtoperformthefollowingfunctions:
(i)Phaticfunction/communion:
Toestablishormaintainanatmosphereorsocialcontact;
(ii)Directivefunction:
Togetthehearertodosomething;
(iii)Informativefunction:
Togiveinformationortoreasonthingsout;
(iv)Interrogativefunction:
Toaskforinformation;
(v)Expressivefunction:
Toexpressthespeaker’sattitudesorfeelings;
(vi)Evocativefunction:
Tocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer;
(vii)Performativefunction:
Toperformactsortodothings.
1.3SomeMajorConceptsinLinguistics:
1.3.1Descriptiveandprescriptivegrammars
Descriptivegrammarattemptstodescribelanguageasitis;prescriptivegrammarprescribeshowlanguageshouldused.
1.3.2Synchronicanddiachroniclinguistics
Synchroniclinguisticsstudieslanguageatapointintime;diachroniclinguisticsstudieslanguagethroughtimeoracrosstime.
1.3.3Langueandparole
AccordingtoF.deSaussurewhomadethisdistinctionfromasociologicalviewoflanguage,languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity;parolereferstotheparticularrealizationsoflangue.(Langueisthesocialconventionalsideoflanguage;paroleisindividualizedspeech.Langueisthecode;paroleisthemessage.)Langueandparoletogetherconstitutelanguage.
1.3.4Competenceandperformance
AccordingtoNoamChomskywhomadethisdistinctionfromapsychologicalviewoflanguage,competencereferstotheknowledgethatnativespeakershaveoftheirlanguageasasystemofabstractformalrelations;performancereferstotheiractuallinguisticbehavior,i.e.theactualuseofthisknowledge.
1.3.5Syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelations
AccordingtoF.deSaussurewhomadethisdistinction,syntagmaticrelationreferstothehorizontal/positionalrelationshipbetweenlinguisticelements,whichformlinearsequences;paradigmaticrelationreferstothevertical/substitutionrelationshipbetweenforms,whichmightoccupythesamepar
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