工程造价外文及翻译.docx
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工程造价外文及翻译.docx
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工程造价外文及翻译
TheCostofBuildingStructure
1.Introduction
Theartofarchitecturaldesignwascharacterizedasoneofdealingcomprehensivelywithacomplexsetofphysicalandnonphysicaldesigndeterminants.Structuralconsiderationswerecastasimportantphysicaldeterminantsthatshouldbedealtwithinahierarchicalfashioniftheyaretohaveasignificantimpactonspatialorganizationandenvironmentalcontroldesignthinking.
Theeconomicalaspectofbuildingrepresentsanonphysicalstructuralconsiderationthat,infinalanalysis,mustalsobeconsideredimportant.Costconsiderationsareincertainwaysaconstrainttocreativedesign.Butthisneednotbeso.Ifsomethingisknownoftherelationshipbetweenstructuralandconstructivedesignoptionsandtheircostofimplementation,itisreasonabletobelievethatcreativitycanbeenhanced.Thishasbeenconfirmedbytheauthors’observationthatmostenhanced.Thishasbeenconfirmedbytheauthors’observationthatmostcreativedesigninnovationssucceedundercompetitivebiddingandnotbecauseofunusualowneraffluenceasthefewpublicizedcasesofextravagancemightleadonetobelieve.Onecouldevensaythatadesignerwhoistrulycreativewillproducearchitecturalexcellencewithintheconstraintsofeconomy.Especiallytoday,wefindthatthereisaneedtorecognizethateleganceandeconomycanbecomesynonymousconcepts.
Therefore,inthischapterwewillsetforthabriefexplanationoftheparametersofcostanalysisandthemeansbywhichdesignersmayevaluatetheoveralleconomicimplicationsoftheirstructuralandarchitecturaldesignthinking.
Thecostofstructurealonecanbemeasuredrelativetothetotalcostofbuildingconstruction.Or,sincethetotalconstructioncostisbutapartofatotalprojectcost,onecouldincludeadditionalconsiderationforland(10~20percent),financeandinterest(100~200percent),taxesandmaintenancecosts(ontheorderof20percent).Butadiscussionoftheseso-calledarchitecturalcostsisbeyondthescopeofthisbook,andwewillfocusonthecostofconstructiononly.
Ontheaverage,purelystructuralcostsaccountforabout25percentoftotalconstructioncosts,Thisissobecauseithasbeentraditionaltodiscriminatebetweenpurelystructuralandotherso-calledarchitecturalcostsofconstruction.Thus,intraditionwefindthatarchitecturalcostshavebeentakentobethosethatarenotnecessaryforthestructuralstrengthandphysicalintegrityofabuildingdesign.
“Essentialservices”formsathirdconstructioncostcategoryandreferstotheprovisionofmechanicalandelectricalequipmentandotherservicesystems.Ontheaverage,theseservicecostsaccountforsome15to30percentofthetotalconstructioncost,dependingonthetypeofbuilding.Mechanicalandelectricalreferstothecostofprovidingforair-conditioningequipmentandhemeansonairdistributionaswellasotherservices,suchasplumbing,communications,andelectricallightandpower.
Thesalientpointisthatthisbreakdownofcostssuggeststhat,uptonow,anaverageofabout45to60percentofthetotalcostofconstructingatypicaldesignsolutioncouldbeconsideredasarchitectural.Butthispictureisrapidlychanging.Withhighinterestcostsandascarcityofcapital,clientgroupsaredemandingleanerdesigns.Therefore,onemayconcludethattherearetwoapproachesthedesignermaytaketowardsinfluencingtheconstructioncostofbuilding.
Thefirstapproachtocostefficiencyistoconsiderthatwhereverarchitecturalandstructuralsolutionscanbeachievedsimultaneously,apotentialforeconomyisevident.Sincecurrenttrendsindicateareluctancetoallocatelargeportionsofaconstructionbudgettopurelyarchitecturalcosts,thisapproachseemsalogicalnecessity.But,evenwheremoneyisavailable,anyuseofstructuretoplayabasicarchitecturalrolewillallowthenonstructuralbudgettobeappliedtofulfillotherarchitecturalneedsthatmightnormallyhavetobeappliedtofulfillotherarchitecturalneedsthatmightnormallyhavetobecutback.Thesecondapproachachieveseconomythroughanintegrationofserviceandstructuralsubsystemstoroundoutone’sefforttoproduceatotalarchitecturalsolutiontoabuildingdesignproblem.
Thefinalpricingofaprojectbytheconstructororcontractorusuallytakesadifferentform.Thecostsarebrokendowninto
(1)costofmaterialsbroughttothesite,
(2)costoflaborinvolvedineveryphaseoftheconstructionprocess,(3)costofequipmentpurchasedorrentedfortheproject,(4)costofmanagementandoverhead,and(5)profit.Thearchitectorengineerseldomfollowssuchanaccuratepathbutshouldperhapskeepinmindhowtheactualcostofastructureisfinallypricedandmadeup.
Thus,thepercentaveragesstatedaboveareobviouslycrude,buttheycansufficetointroducethenatureofthecostpicture.Thefollowingsectionswilldiscusstherangeoftheseaveragesandthenproceedtoadiscussionofsquarefootagecostsandvolume-basedestimatesforuseinroughapproximationofthecostofbuildingastructuralsystem.
2.PercentageEstimates
Thetypeofbuildingprojectmayindicatetherangeofpercentagesthatcanbeallocatedtostructuralandothercosts.Asmightbeexpected,highlydecorativeorsymbolicbuildingswouldnormallydemandthelowestpercentageofstructuralcostsascomparedtototalconstructioncost.Inthiscasethestructuralcostsmightdropto10~15percentofthetotalbuildingcostbecausemoremoneyisallocatedtotheso-calledarchitecturalcosts.Onceagainthisimpliesthatthesymboliccomponentsareconceivedindependentofbasicstructuralrequirements.However,wherestructureandsymbolismaremore-or-lesssynthesized,aswithachurchorCathedral,thestructuralsystemcostcanbeexpectedtobesomewhathigher,say,15and20percent(ormore).
Attheotherendofthecostscalearetheverysimpleandnonsymbolicindustrialbuildings,suchaswarehousesandgarages.Inthesecases,thenonstructuralsystems,suchasinteriorpartitionwallsandceilings,aswillasmechanicalsystems,arenormallyminimal,asisdecoration,andthereforethestructuralcostscanaccountfor60to70percent,even80percentofthetotalcostofconstruction.
Buildingssuchasmedium-riseofficeandapartmentbuildings(5~10stories)occupythemedianpositiononacostscaleatabout25percentforstructure.Lowandshort-spanbuildingsforcommerceandhousing,say,ofthreeorfourstoriesandwithspansofsome20or30ftandsimpleerectionrequirements,willyieldstructuralcostsof15~20percentoftotalbuildingcost.
Special-performancebuildings,suchaslaboratoriesandhospitals,representanothercategory.Theycanrequirelongspansandamorethanaverageportionofthetotalcostswillbeallocatedtoservices(i.e.,30~50percent),withabout20percentgoingforthepurelystructuralcosts.Tallofficebuilding(15storiesormore)and/orlong-spanbuildings(say,50to60ft)canrequireahigherpercentageforstructuralcosts(about30to35percentofthetotalconstructioncosts),withabout30to40percentallocatedtoservices.
Inmycase,thesepercentagesaretypicalandcanbeconsideredasameasureofaverageefficiencyindesignofbuildings.Forexample,ifalow,short-spanandnonmonumentalbuildingweretobebidat30percentforthestructurealone,onecouldassumethatthestructuraldesignmaybecomparativelyuneconomical.Ontheotherhand,thearchitectshouldbeawareoftheconfusingfactthateconomicalbidsdependonthepracticalabilityofboththedesignerandthecontractortointerpretthedesignandconstructionrequirementssothatalowbidwillensue.Progressinstructuraldesignisoftenlimitedmorebythedesigner’sorcontractor’slackofexperience,imagination,andabsenceofcommunicationthanbytheideaofthedesign.Ifacontractorisuncertain,hewilladdcoststohedgetheriskhewillbetaking.Itisforthisreasonthatboththearchitectandtheengineershouldbewell-versedintheareaofconstructionpotentialsifinnovativedesignsatetobecompetitivelybid.Attheleastthearchitectmustbecapableofworkingcloselywithimaginativestructuralengineers,contractorsandevenfabricatorswhereverpossibleevenifthearchitectureisveryordinary.Efficiencyalwaysrequiresknowledgeandaboveallimagination,andtheseareessentialwhendesignsareunfamiliar.
Theforegoingpercentagescanbehelpfulinapproximatingtotalconstructioncostsiftheassumptionismadethatstructuraldesignisatleastofaverage(oftypical)efficiency.Forexample,ifatotalofficebuildingconstructioncostbudgetis﹩5,000,000,and25percentisthe“standard”tobeusedforstructure,aprojectedstructuralsystemshouldcostnomorethan﹩1,250,000.Ifaveryefficientdesignwererealized,say,at80percentofwhatwouldbegivenbythe“average”efficientdesignestimatestatedabovethesavings,(20percent),wouldthenbe﹩250,000or5percentoftotalconstructioncosts﹩5,000,000.Ifthe﹩5,000,000figureiscommitted,thenthesavingsof﹩250,000couldbeappliedtoexpandthebudgetfor“other”costs.
Allthissuggeststhatcreativeintegrationofstructural(andmechanicalandelectrical)designwiththetotalarchitecturaldesignconceptcanresultineitherareductioninpurelyconstructiondesignconceptcanresultineitherareductioninpurelyconstructioncostsormorearchitectureforthesamecost.Thus,thedegreeofsuccesspossibledependsonknowledge,cleverness,andinsightfulcollaborationofthedesignersandcontractors.
Theabovediscussionisonlymeanttogivethereaderanoverallperspectiveontotalconstructioncosts.Thefollowingsectionswilln
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