FLAW IN THE REASONING QUESTIONS.docx
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FLAW IN THE REASONING QUESTIONS.docx
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FLAWINTHEREASONINGQUESTIONS
FLAWINTHEREASONINGQUESTIONS
FLAWINTHEREASONINGQUESTIONS
Thecorrectanswerwillidentifytheerrorintheauthor’sreasoninganddescribethaterroringeneralterms.Closelyexaminetherelationshipbetweenthepremisesandtheconclusion
1. UNCERTAINUSEOFATERMORCONCEPT
Ambiguoususe/differentmeaning/intwodifferentways/equivocate/shiftinmeaning/failstodefine
2. SOURCEARGUMENT(针对人)
Attackstheperson(orsource)insteadoftheargumenttheyadvance.
Makesanattackonthecharacterofopponents
Itisdirectedagainsttheproponentofaclaimratherthanagainsttheclaimitself
Hedirectshiscriticismagainstthepersonmakingtheargumentratherthandirectingitagainsttheargumentitself
Itdrawsconclusionsaboutthemeritofapositionandaboutthecontentofthatpositionfromevidenceabouttheposition’ssource
Assumingthataclaimisfalseonthegroundsthatthepersondefendingitisofquestionablecharacter
3. CIRCULARREASONING(thepremiseandtheconclusionareidenticalinmeaning)
Assumesastruewhatissupposedtobeproved.
Itassumeswhatitseekstoestablish
Arguescircularlybyassumingtheconclusionistrueinstatingthepremises
Presupposesthetruthofwhatitsetsouttoprove
Theargumentassumeswhatitisattemptingtodemonstrate
Ittakesforgrantedtheveryclaimthatitsetsouttoestablish
Itoffers,inplaceofsupportforitsconclusion,amererestatementofthatconclusion
4. ERROROFCONDITIONALREASONING
Itisoftenusedtheword“sufficient(assured)”,“necessary(required)”toindicatethiskindoferrors
Takingthenonexistenceofsthasevidencethatanecessarypreconditionforthatthingalsodidnotexist(MISTAKENNEGATION)
Mistakesbeingsufficienttojustifypunishmentforbeingrequiredtojustifyit(MISTAKENREVERSAL)
Ittreatssththatisnecessaryforbringingaboutastateofaffairsassththatissufficienttobringaboutastateofaffair(CONFUSESANECESSARYCONDITIONFORASUFFICIENTCONDITION)
Fromtheassertionthatsthisnecessarytoamoralorder,theargumentconcludesthatthatthingissufficientforanelementofthemoralordertoberealized(CONFUSESANECESSARYCONDITIONFORASUFFICIENTCONDITION)
Confusesasufficientconditionwitharequiredcondition(CONFUSEASUFFICIENT CONDITIONFORANECESSARYCONDITION)
Infersfromtheideathatthecurrentgeographyofmoderncitiesresultedfromaparticularcausethatitcouldonlyhaveresultedfromthatcause.
5. MISTAKENCAUSEANDEFFECT
Notethefrequencywithwhichtheword“cause”or”effect”areused
(1)assumingacausalrelationshiponthebasisofthesequenceofevents
mistakesatemporalrelationshipforacausalrelationship
(2)assumingacausalrelationshipwhenonlyacorrelationexists
confusingthecoincidenceoftwoeventswithacausalrelationbetweenthetwo
assumesacausalrelationshipwhereonlyacorrelationhasbeenindicated
(3)failuretoconsideranalternativecausefortheeffect,oranalternativecauseforboththecauseandtheeffect
failstoexcludeanalternativeexplanationfortheobservedeffect
overlooksthepossibilitythatthesamethingmaycausallycontributebothtoeducationandtogoodhealth
(4)failuretoconsiderthattheeventsmaybereversed
theauthormistakesaneffectforcause
6. STRAWMAN
Theauthorattemptstoattackanopponent’spositionbyignoringtheactualstatementmadebytheopposingspeakerandinsteaddistortsandrefashionstheargument,makingitweakerintheprocess.Oftenusethephrase“whatyou’resayingis”or”ifIunderstandyoucorrectly”toprefacetherefashionedandweakenedargument
Refutesadistortedversionofanopposingposition
Misdescribingthestudentrepresentative’sposition,therebymakingiteasiertochallenge
Portraysopponents’viewsasmoreextremethantheyreallyare
Distortstheproposaladvancedbyopponents
7. GENERALLACKOFRELEVANTEVIDENCEFORTHECONCLUSION
Theauthorcitesirrelevantdata
Drawsaconclusionthatisbroaderinscopethaniswarrantedbytheevidenceadvanced
Itusesirrelevantfactstojustifyaclaimaboutthequalityofthedisputedproduct
Itfailstogiveanyreasonforthejudgmentitreaches
Itintroducesinformationunrelatedtoitsconclusionasevidenceinsupportofthatconclusion
8. INTERNALCONTRADICTION
Basesaconclusiononclaimsthatareinconsistentwitheachother
Theauthormakesincompatibleassumptions
Introduceinformationthatactuallycontradictstheconclusion
Offersinsupportofitsconclusionpiecesofevidencethataremutuallycontradictory
Someoftheevidencepresentedinsupportoftheconclusionisinconsistentwithotherevidenceprovided
Assumessththatitlaterdenies,resultingacontradiction
9. APPEALFALLACIES
(1)appealtoauthority
thejudgmentofexpertsisappliedtoamatterinwhichtheirexpertiseisirrelevant
theargumentinappropriatelyappealstotheauthorityofthemajor
itreliesonthejudgmentofexpertsinamattertowhichtheirexpertiseisirrelevant
acceptsaclaimonmereauthority,withoutrequiringsufficientjustification
(2)appealtopopularopinion/numbers
ittreatspopularopinionasifitconstitutedconclusiveevidenceforaclaim
attemptstodiscreditlegislationbyappealingtopublicsentiment
aclaimisinferredtobefalsemerelybecauseamajorityofpeoplebelieveittobefalse
theargument,insteadofprovidingadequatereasonsinsupportofitsconclusion,makesanappealtopopularopinion.
(3)appealtoemotion
attemptstopersuadebymakinganemotionalappeal
usesemotivelanguageinlabelingtheproposals
theargumentappealstoemotionratherthanreason
10. SURVEYERRORS
(1)useabiasedsample
usesevidencedrawnfromasmallsamplethatmaywellbeunrepresentative
generalizesfromanunrepresentativesample
statesageneralizationbasedonaselectionthatisnotrepresentativeofthegroupaboutwhichthegeneralizationissupposedtoholdtrue
(2)questionsareimproperlyconstructed
(3)respondentsgiveinaccurateresponses
11. EXCEPTIONALCASE/OVERGENERALIZATION
Takesasmallnumberofinstancesandtreatsthoseinstancesasiftheysupportabroad,sweepingconclusion.
Supportsauniversalclaimonthebasisofasingleexample
Theargumentgeneralizesfromtoosmallasampleofcases
Toogeneralaconclusionismadeaboutinvestingonthebasisofasingleexperiment
Basesageneralclaimonafewexceptionalinstances
12. ERRORSOFCOMPOSITIONANDDIVISION
COMPOSITION:
attributesacharacteristicofpartofthegroupasawholeortoeachmemberofthegroup
DIVISION:
attributesacharacteristicofthewholeoreachnumberofthewholetoapartofthegroup.
Judgmentsaboutgroupsandpartsofagroup
Assumingthatbecausesthistrueofeachpartsofawholeitistrueofthewholeitself
Improperlyinfersthateachandeveryscientisthasacertaincharacteristicfromthepremisethatmostscientistshavethatcharacteristic
Takestheviewofonelawyertorepresenttheviewsofalllawyers
Presumes,withoutjustification,thatwhatistrueofawholemustalsotobetrueofitsconstituentparts
13. FALSEANALOGY
Treatsassimilartwocasesthataredifferentinacriticalrespect
Treatstwokindofthingsthatdifferinimportantrespectsasiftheydonotdiffer
14. FALSEDILEMMA
Assumethatonlytwocourseofactionareavailablewhentheremaybeothers
Failstoconsiderthatsomestudentsmaybeneitherfascinatedbynorcompletelyindifferenttothesubjectbeingtaught
15. ERRORSINTHEUSEOFEVIDENCE
(1)Lackofevidencefor/againstapositionistakentoprovethatpositionisfalse/true
treatsfailuretoproveaclaimasconstitutingdenialofthatclaim
takingalackofevidenceforaclaimasevidenceunderminingthatclaim
treatingthefailuretoestablishthatacertainclaimisfalseasequivalenttoademonstrationthattheclaimistrue
(2)onlysomeevidenceagainst/forapositionistaketoprovethatpositionisfalse/true(drawmustbeconclusionfromsomeevidence)
itconfusesundermininganargumentinsupportofagivenconclusionwithshowingthattheconclusionitselfisfalse
theargumenttakesevidenceshowingmerelythatitsconclusioncouldbetruetoconstituteevidenceshowingthattheconclusionisinfacttrue
16. TIMESHIFTERRORS
Treataclaimaboutwhatiscurrentlythecaseasifitwereaclaimaboutwhathasbeenthecaseforanextendedperiod
Uncriticallydrawsaninferencefromwhathasbeentrueinthepasttowhatwillbetrueinthefuture
17. NUMBERSANDPERCENTAGEERRORS
Theargumentconfusesthepercentageofthebudgetspentonaprogramwiththeoverallamountspentonthatprogram
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