浅析企业筹资方式外文原文.docx
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浅析企业筹资方式外文原文.docx
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浅析企业筹资方式外文原文
TowardsaTheoryofCulturalInfluenceontheDevelopmentofAccountingSystemsInternationally
S.J.GRAY
Abstract:
Researchhasshownthataccountingfollowsdifferentpatternsindifferent
partsoftheworld.Therehavebeenclaimsthatnationalsystemsaredeterminedbyenvironmentalfactors.Inthiscontext,culturalfactorshavenotbeenfullyconsidered.Thispaperproposesfourhypothesesontherelationshipbetweenidentifiedculturalcharacteristicsandthedevelopmentofaccountingsystems,theregulationoftheaccountingprofessionandattitudestowardsfinancialmanagementanddisclosure.Thehypothesesarenotoperationalized,andempiricaltestshavenotbeencarriedout.Theyareproposedhereasafirststepinthedevelopmentofatheoryofculturalinfluenceonthedevelopmentofaccountingsystems.
Keywords:
Accountingpolicies;Culture;Financialreporting.
Introduction
Thispaperexplorestheextenttowhichinternationaldifferencesinaccounting,withspecificreferencetocorporatefinancialreportingsystems,maybeexplainedand
predictedbydifferencesinculturalfactors.
Whilepriorresearchhasshownthattherearedifferentpatternsofaccounting
internationallyandthatthedevelopmentofnationalsystemstendstobeafunction
ofenvironmentalfactors,itisamatterofsomecontroversyastotheidentification
ofthepatternsandinfluentialfactorsinvolved.Inthiscontextthesignificanceofculturedoesnotappeartohavebeenfullyappreciatedandthusthepurposeofthispaperistoproposeaframeworkwhichlinksculturewiththedevelopmentofaccountingsystemsinternationally.
Thefirstsectionofthepaperreviewspriorresearchoninternationalclassification
andtheinfluenceofenvironmentalfactors.Thesecondsectionaddressesthesignificanceoftheculturaldimensionanditsapplicationtoaccounting.Thethird
sectionproposesaframeworkanddevelopshypotheseslinkingculturewiththe
developmentofaccountingattitudesandsystemsinternationally,basedonthecross-culturalworkofHofstede.Inthefourthsectionsomecultureareaclassificationsareproposed.Theyhavebeendevelopedonajudgmentalbasis,inthecontextofcombinationsofaccountingattitudesor'values'whichdetermine(a)theauthorityforandenforcementofaccountingsystems,and(b)themeasurementanddisclosurecharacteristicsofaccountingsystems.
INTERNATIONALCLASSIFICATIONAND
ENVIRONMENTALFACTORS
Comparativeaccountingresearchhasprovidedanenhancedawarenessoftheinfluenceofenvironmentalfactorsonaccountingdevelopment.Thisresearchhascontributedtoagrowingrealizationthatfundamentallydifferentaccountingpatternsexistasaresultofenvironmentaldifferencesandthatinternationalclassificationdifferencesmayhavesignificantimplicationsforinternationalharmonizationandthepromotionofeconomicintegration.Inthisregardithasalsobeensuggestedthattheidentificationofpatternsmaybeusefulinpermittingabetterunderstandingofthepotentialforchange,givenanychangeinenvironmentalfactors;andthatpolicy-makersmaybeinabetterpositiontopredictproblemsthatacountrymaybelikelytofaceandidentifysolutionsthatmaybefeasible,giventheexperienceofcountrieswithsimilardevelopmentpatterns.
Researcheffortsinthisareahavetendedtoapproachtheinternationalclassification
ofaccountingsystemsfromtwomajordirections.First,thereisthedeductiveapproach
wherebyrelevantenvironmentalfactorsareidentifiedand,bylinkingthesetonational
accountingpractices,internationalclassificationsordevelopmentpatternsareproposed.Second,thereistheinductiveapproachwherebyaccountingpracticesareanalysed,developmentpatternsidentified,andexplanationsproposedwithreferencetoavarietyofeconomic,social,political,andculturalfactors.
Asregardsthedeductiveapproachtoaccountingclassification,theenvironmental
analysisbyMuellerprovidesausefulstartingpoint.Muelleridentifiedfourdistinctapproachestoaccountingdevelopmentinwesternnationswithmarketorientatedeconomicsystems.Thesewere:
1.themacroeconomicpattern—wherebusinessaccountinginterrelatescloselywith
nationaleconomicpolicies;
2.themicroeconomicpattern-whereaccountingisviewedasabranchofbusiness
economics;
3.theindependentdisciplineapproach—whereaccountingisviewedasaservice
functionandderivedfrombusinesspractice;
4.theuniformaccountingapproach—whereaccountingisviewedasanefficient
meansofadministrationandcontrol.
Whilealloftheseapproacheswereperceivedtobecloselylinkedtoeconomicor
businessfactors,awidersetofinfluences,forexample,legalsystem,politicalsystem,
socialclimatewererecognizedasbeingrelevant,thoughwithoutprecisespecification,
toaccountingdevelopment.Culturalfactorsreceivednoexplicitrecognition,however,andwerepresumablysubsumedinthesetofenvironmentalfactorsidentified.
Mueller'sanalysiswasadaptedandextendedbyNobeswhobasedhisclassificationonanevolutionaryapproachtotheidentificationofmeasurementpracticesindevelopedWesternnations.Nobesadoptedahierarchicalschemeofclassificationinanendeavourtoprovidemoresubtletyanddiscriminationtotheassessmentofcountrydifferences.However,similarlytoMueller,noexplicitmentionwasmadeofculturalfactors.Abasicdistinctionbetweenmicroeconomicandmacroeconomicsystemswasmadetogetherwithadisaggregationbetweenbusinesseconomicsandbusinesspracticeorientationsunderamicro-basedclassification.Thisclassificationsystemwasthentestedbymeansofajudgmentalanalysisofnationalfinancialreportingsystemsinfourteencountries.
Bywayofcontrast,theinductiveapproachtoidentifyingaccountingpatternsbeginswithananalysisofaccountingpractices.PerhapsthemostimportantcontributionofthistypewasbyNairandFrank,whocarriedoutastatisticalanalysisofaccountingpracticesinforty-fourcountries.Anempiricaldistinctionwasmadebetweenmeasurementanddisclosurepracticesasthesewereseentohavedifferentpatternsofdevelopment.
Theempiricalresults,usingfactoranalysisappliedtoindividualpractices,showed
thatinrespectofthePriceWaterhousedataitwaspossibletoidentifyfivegroupingsofcountries,withChileasasingle-country'group',intermsofmeasurementpractices.Thenumberofgroupingsincreasedtosevenwhendisclosurepracticeswereconsidered.Thedisclosuregroupings,ontheotherhand,couldnotbedescribedplausiblyonasimilar'spheres-of-influence'classificationonaccountoftheirapparentdiversity.
Subsequenttotheidentificationofgroupings,NairandFrankattemptedtoassess
therelationshipsofthesegroupingswithanumberofexplanatoryvariables.While
relationshipswereestablishedinrespectofsomeofthevariableswhichincludedlanguage(asaproxyforculture),variousaspectsofeconomicstructureandtrading
ties,itwasclearthatthereweredifferencesasbetweenthemeasurementanddisclosure
groupings.However,thehypothesesthat(a)culturalandeconomicvariablesmight
bemorecloselyassociatedwithdisclosurepractices,and(b)tradingvariablesmight
bemorecloselyassociatedwithmeasurementpracticeswerenotsupported.Itiscurioustonoteherethatthelanguagevariable,asaproxyforculture,wasperceivedtobe
ameansofcapturingsimilaritiesinlegalsystemswhichwerethoughttobeparticularly
importantinthedeterminationofdisclosurepatterns.Thisisquestionableinitself,
butinanyeventnojustificationwasgivenfortheuseoflanguageasaproxyforculture.
Fromthisbriefreviewofsomeofthemajorstudiesininternationalclassification
itseemsclearthattodateonlyverybroadcountrygroupingsoraccountingpatterns
havebeenidentified.Atthesametime,onlyverygeneralrelationshipsbetween
environmentalfactorsandaccountingpatternshavebeenestablished.
Thesignificanceofcultureinthecontextofpriorclassificationresearchisfarfromclear.Itmaybethatculturalinfluenceshavebeengenerallysubsumedinthe
predominantconcernwitheconomicfactorsbutthishasnotbeenmadeexplicit.
Accordingly,theinfluenceofcultureonaccountingwouldseemtohavebeenlargely
neglectedinthedevelopmentofideasaboutinternationalclassifications.
THECULTURALDIMENSION
Thesignificanceofcultureininfluencingandexplainingbehaviourinsocialsystems
hasbeenrecognizedandexploredinawiderangeofliteraturesbutespeciallytheanthropology,sociologyandpsychologyliteratures.
Culturehasbeendefinedas'thecollectiveprogrammingofthemindwhich
distinguishesthemembersofonehumangroupfromanother'.Theword'culture'isreservedforsocietiesasawhole,ornations,whereas'subculture'isusedfortheievelofanorganization,professionorfamily.Whilethedegreeofculturalintegrationvariesbetweensocieties,mostsubcultureswithinasocietysharecommoncharacteristicswithothersubcultures.
Anessentialfeatureofsocialsystemsisperceivedtobetheinclusionofasystem
ofsocietalnorms,consistingofthevaluesystemssharedbymajorgroupswithina
nation.Valueshavebeendefinedas'abroadtendencytoprefercertainstatesofaffairs
overothers'.Valuesatthecollectivelevel,asopposedtotheindividuallevel,representculture;thusculturedescribesasystemofsocietalorcollectivelyheldvalues.
Intheaccountingliterature,however,theimportanceofcultureanditshistorical
rootsisonlyjustbeginningtoberecognized.Whiletherehasbeenalackofattention
tothisdimensionintheinternationalclassificationliterature,
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