THE SOCIOLOGY OF DISASTER.docx
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THE SOCIOLOGY OF DISASTER.docx
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THESOCIOLOGYOFDISASTER
THESOCIOLOGYOFDISASTER:
DEFINITIONS,RESEARCHQUESTIONS,&MEASUREMENTSINAPOST-SEPTEMBER11,2001ENVIRONMENT
HenryW.FischerIII
Whatisadisaster?
Whatisthesociologyofdisaster?
Whatisitthatdisastersociologistsstudy?
Isitpossibletomeasuredisasterssociologically,i.e.,adisasterscale?
Duringthelastfiveyears,theleadingdisastersociologistshaveengagedinanon-goingdiscussion,withintheresearchliterature,inanswertothesequestions.IntheaftermathofSeptember11,2001,thisdiscussionisevenmoreimperative.Thispaperjoinsthediscussion.First,thedisastereventisclearlydelineatedfromthesocialstructureadjustmentssociologistsstudy.Thesociologyofdisasterisdescribedasthesocialscientificstudyofthesocialstructure(anditsadjustments)precedingandfollowingtheprecipitating(actualorpotential),disastrousevent.Aconceptual,ratherthanapurelyquantitativedisasterscaleisdesigned—onepotentiallyusefultobothresearchersandpractitioners.Itdifferentiatesbetweenthedisasteragent,orprecipitatingevent,andthesociologicalfocus,orsocialstructure(anditsadjustments).Scale,scopeand(time)durationareappliedtocreateatendisastercategories.Thescaleencompasseseverydayemergencies,severeemergencies,sixtypesof“disasters”(focusingonwhetheracommunitywaspartiallyorcompletelydisruptedordistressedaswellasfocusingoncommunitysize),multiplesimultaneouspopulationcentercatastrophes,andsocietalannihilation—allformingacontinuumrangingfromdisastercategory1through10.Threefiguresareincludedtoclarifytheconceptualizedreasoningformeasurement,therelationshipbetweenkeyvariables,andtheirapplicationtocreatingtendisastercategories.
ParticularlysincethepublicationofWhatisaDisaster?
(Quarantelli,1998),therehasbeenanongoingdiscussionastowhatconstitutesa“disaster,”“whatisitthatwestudy”—particularlysociologistsdoingdisasterresearch,and“howcanwemeasuredisasters?
”Inapost-September11,2001environmentthisdiscussionisevenmoreimperative.Howdoestheadventofadditionaldisasteragentsimpactontheanswerstotheabovequestions?
Thecurrentpaperisanattempttocontributetothisdiscussion.
Whileinputhasbeensolicitedandreceivedfromseveralresearchersandpractitioners,theauthorbearsfullresponsibilityforwhatfollows.
SocialStructureandIt’sConstruction
Sociologist’sviewhumanbehaviorandsocialorganizationastheproductofasocialized,sometimesimposed,socialstructurethatproscribesbehavioralguidelinestolifeevents.Socialorganizationiscreatedasastrategyforsatisfyingormeetinghumanneeds—theneedsofsomeare,ofcourse,oftenbettermetthanthoseofothers.Whilewecreateconstructs,e.g,disastertimeversusnormaltime,ultimatelysocialbehaviorandorganizationflowfromthesamesociologicalprinciples.Sociology,bydefinition,focusesonthegroup.Whileindividualsrespondtodisasters,theydosointhecontextofthesocialstructurerootedinthegroupconsciousness.Groups,whethertheyaresmall(n=2),medium(emergentsearchandrescue),orlargeinnumberofparticipants(localorganization,thelocalcommunityornationstate),exhibitanemergentsocialstructurethatisdrawnfromthecollectivesocialconsciousness.Community.Theunitofanalysisfortheaforementionedcollectiveconsciousnessisthesocialunitcommunity.Itis,asDynesnotes(1998:
109),thecommunitythatisthebasisforsociallifeanddisasterresponse.Forexample,itisthelocalemergencymanagerwhoischargedwithcoordinatingmitigation,planningandresponseactivitieswithinhisorhercommunity.Furthermore,returningtoDynes(1998:
113),communityis“theparticularsocialunitthatisauniversalfocusofsocialactivity...witha[social]structurewhichhasevolvedtomeetneedsandtodealwithproblemsaswellastoallocateresourcestoproblems.”Arguingforasociologicalconceptualizationofdisaster,Dynesobservescommunityasthelocusofanalysis:
Itisbasedonasocialunit.
Itisbasedonasocialunitthathascross-nationalandcross-culturalapplicability.Itisasocialunitthathasthecapacityandresourcestoactivatearesponsetothedisaster.(Dynes,1998)AsStallings(1998:
128)noteswhenapplyingKreps(1998)andPorfiriev(1998),disastersarealsosocietalphenomenainthattheyimpactonthelargersystem,e.g.,societaleconomicsocialstructure.Whileitisthecommunitythatisthefirstorprimarylocusofvictimization,sourceoffirstresponders,andsoforth,additionalsocialsystems,e.g.,stateandfederal,arealsodirectlyandindirectlyaffected.Whiletheprimaryfocusondefiningadisasterislogicallythecommunity,thesecondaryeffectsonthesocietycannotbeignored.Thereisaninherentsymbiotictensionbetweenthedichotomousextremesofthecontinuumbetweencommunityandsociety.
PrecipitousEventsandSocialReconstruction:
RapidSocialChange?
AsDombrowskynotes(1998:
19,24),sociologistsdonotstudythenaturalormanmade“disasteragents”(hurricane,floodwatersorhazmatspill).Theyconductresearchonthedisruptionofeverydaysocialactivityresultingfromthepotentialoractualimpactofsuchanagent.WhiletheclassicFritzdefinitionof“disaster”(1961:
655)hasasociologicalfocus,“thesocialstructureisdisruptedandthefulfillmentofallorsomeoftheessentialfunctionsofthesociety,oritssubdivision,isprevented,”itleavesthesociologicalspherewhenitconsiders“lossestoitsmemberandphysicalappurtenances.”Thesalientsociologicalquestionmayverywellnotbe“whatisadisaster?
”Itmaybemoresociologicallyadvantageoustoask,“Whatarethevariouscircumstancesunderwhichcommunitiesandsocietiessuddenlydivergefrompartiallyortotallyadheringtotheirproscribedsocialstructureandtemporarilyorpermanentlyreplaceitwithanalternative?
”Thinkingincollectivebehaviorterms(forexample,seeCurtisandAguirre,1993),whatcircumstancesleadtotheemergenceofnormsresultinginrevolutionasopposedtoriotingortoactionsfacilitatingrecoveryfromtheimpactofatornado?
Whensocialstructureemergesinresponsetoemergentnormsthatdefinethesituationasdemandingariotorarevolution,thereisaperceivedadversary.Whensocialstructureemergesinresponsetoapotentialoractualtornado,flood,andhazardousmaterialsspill,theemergentnormsdemandasocialstructurethatmeetsthecollectiveneeds,anadversaryisnormallyabsent.Inwhathasbeencommonlylabeleda“disaster”(reallythedisruptionresultingfromthe“disaster”agent),theemergentsocialstructureuniversallyproscribesaltruisticnormsandrolesaswellasaninitialsocialbondingamongvictimsandresponders.Inriotsandrevolutionstheinitialsocialbondingoccurswithinseparategroupsthatareinoppositiontooneanother.
Whenadisasteragentispotentiallyoractuallyimpactingacommunity,thesociologicalquestionsinclude“whatsocialstructurechangeswilloccur,whenwilltheseoccur,willtheybetemporaryorpermanent—andwhatvariablesareassociatedwithwhatisfoundinanswertothesequestions?
”Humanbeingsroutinelydeconstructandreconstructtheirsocialstructureinaneverendingattempttocreateameanstomoreperfectlymeettheirneeds.Theyperiodicallyarepresentedwithprecipitatingeventsthatdemandamorerapidresponse.Theprecipitousevent,thedefinitionofthesituation,andtheadoptedalternative(emergentorinstitutionalized)socialstructureisactuallyrapid,asopposedtogradual,socialchangeinresponsetoacataclysmicevent(ofvariedproportions).Whatdisastersociologistsactuallystudyissocial(structure)changeunder
specializedcircumstances.
WhatisaDisaster?
ReturningtoFritz,wereallycannotignoretheprecipitousevent.Whetherornotitresultsin“lossestoitsmembersandphysicalappurtenances,”theeventitselfisanecessaryaspecttotheprocess.Withouttheprecipitatingeventtherewouldbenorapidsocialchange—regardlessofwhetheritistemporaryorpermanent.Perhapsourongoingstruggletocometogripswithwhatisadisaster(seeQuarantelli,1998)isresolvableafterall.Ihavegrownwearyoffightingthevernacular.Laypeople,asevidencedinanydictionary(forexample,seeTheAmericanHeritageDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage,1992:
529),define“disaster”as“anoccurrencecausingwidespreaddestructionanddistress.”Whynotgraciouslyacceptthecommonusage?
Whynotacceptthatadisaster,simplyput,isthemessthatresultsfromaprecipitouseventwhichitselfisthedisasteragentorcauseofthebigmess?
Dowereallyneedasociologicaldefinitionofdisaster?
Wedonotstudytheaforementionedphenomenaanyway.Sociologistsstudysocialbehavior,socialorganizations,andsocialstructure.Wedonotstudydisasters.Westudywhatoccursbefore,andsometimesduring,aswellasaftertheprecipitousevent.Forexample,westudycomplexorganizationsduring“normaltime,”i.e.,beforetheprecipitousevent,inordertodeterminewhymitigationisembracedorresisted.Whatismitigatedisthepotentialprecipitouseventoritseffects.Westudy,however,thesocialstructureprocess.Wealsostudythesocialstructureprocessoccurringinresponsetotheprecipitousevent.Aspreviouslynoted,westudythealteredsocialstructureintheaftermathoftheimpactofadisasteragentwhenitcauses
widespreaddestructionanddistress.
Doescapitulatingtothecommonusageoftheterm“disaster”resultinanidentitylossfordisastersociologists,disasterresearchersorthosewhostudythesociologyofdisaster?
Absolutely
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