Human Information Processing.docx
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Human Information Processing.docx
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HumanInformationProcessing
HumanInformationProcessing:
ThefirstpartofthissectionismostlytakenfrompapersbyGordonBower
Informationprocessinginvolvesactsofknowing.
Mentalactivitiesthatoccurbetweenthetimethestimulusispresentedandthetimetheresponseisemitted.
Theaimofcognitivepsychologyistodecomposethesequenceofmentalactivitiesintodifferentsubprocesses.
Thenotionofexecutivecontrol.
Thetoplevelroutineinaprogram.(thisistakenassolvingtheproblemofthehomunculus) Theexecutivecallsroutinesatthenextlowerlevel.
Hierarchicalanalysis:
Thisstructurepermitstheanalysisofbehavioronseverallevelssimultaneously.
Theinterpreterreadsinstructionsandtranslatesthemintophysicaleventsthattakeplaceinthecomputer,orintheperson.
Thenotionisthatacomputerprogram,orcomputersimulation,isadescriptionofbehaviorthatisexternaltotheperson,justlikeanyotherscientifictheory.
Broadlyconceived,thosedevelopinginformationprocessingtheorymakeassumptionssimilartothefollowinglist.
(1) Theaimistospecifythesequenceofmentalactivitiesthatintervenethephysical
(2) Thecomputeristakenasthemetaphor. Thecomputerfrequentlyservesasasourceofhypothesesaboutcognitivefunctioning.
(3) Cognitioninvolvesdistinctindividualprocessesactinginconcert.
Theassumptionifthattherearearelativelysmallnumberofprocessesthatunderlieallcognitivefunctioning. Becauseeachprocessingcomponenttakestime,reactiontimemeasures--measuringduration--aremuchused.
(4a) Informationisrepresentedinsymbolicform.
(4b) Informationprocessesarementalactivitiesthatgenerate,transform,andmanipulatesymbolicallyrepresentedinformation.
(4c) 4aand4btakentogetherformasystemofknowledgethatwemayconvenientlythinkofasincludingmemory. Thismemoryhasnoknowncapacitylimits.
Wecanaccessinformationinmemorybymanydifferentroutes.
Thesystemhasverypowerfulinferencingcapabilities.
Wehaveverylimitedattentionalresourcesthatareusedtoactivateinformationandmaintainitinanactivestate.
Considerperceptionandlearningfromtheperspectiveoftheassumptionswejustconsidered:
(1) Perceptionandlearninginvolveaseriesofprocessingstages. Eachtransforms,condenses,elaborates,orrecodestheinformationaspresentedtoit.
(2) Eachprocessingstage'sinputisinformationascoded(etc.)inthepreviousstage. Thecurrentprocessingstagethenactsontheinformationtocondense,abstract,recode,elaborate,etc.it.
(3) Therepresentationofexternalstimulibyinternalsymbolsandtheirinterrelations,orsymbolstructuresarewhatwecallinformation.
(4)(a)Cognitivescientistswanttodeterminehowinformationisrepresentedateachprocessingstage. (b)Theywanttodeterminethenatureoftheelaboration,abstraction,condensation,recoding,etc.,thattakeplaceineachprocessingstage. (c) Theywanttoknowwhatexperimentalvariablesinfluencethetransformationsthattakeplaceateachprocessingstage.
(5) Frequentlytheattempttoexploretheprocessesthatweredescribeddirectlyaboveinvolvescomputersimulation,aswellasempiricaldataderivedfromexperiments.
AlanNewellandHerbSimonpresentedthefollowingschemeinaveryinfluentialbooksomeyearsago.
InformationProcessingSystem(IPS). Itconsistsofasensorysystem,memory,centralprocessor,andaresponsegenerator.
OtherconceptstheydeemimportantincludeSymbols. Thesearetheprimitivesoutofwhichmeaningfulinformationisconstructed. Symbolsrepresentprimitivessuchaslines,angles,edges,corners,colors,etc.
AndSymbolStructures,whichincludesymbolsandtherelationsamongthosesymbolsthatconstructmeaningfulinformation.
AndMemory.
Thecentralprocessorconsistsofthreebasicparts.
(1)Afixedsetofelementaryinformationprocesses(eip's). Theideaisthatarelativesmallsetofeip'scanproducethefullgeneralityofsymbolmanipulationsthathumancancarryout.
(2)Ashorttermmemory(STM).
(3)Aninterpreterthatdeterminesthesequenceinwhicheip'saretobeexecuted.
Theaimhereistomakethegeneralschemeofserialprocessingsomewhatmeaningfulbytalkingaboutsomeclassicpapersincognitivepsychology. TheseincludepapersbySperlingoniconicstorage,Posner'sworkoncoding,G.Sternberg'sworkonrecognitionprocesses,andtheworkofAtkinson&ShiffrinandofNeimarkonmemoryprocesses.
Wundtandhisstudentsinthe1880sstudiedwhatwasthencalledthespanofapprehension. Thequestionconcernedattention. Howmanyobjectscanbeattendedtosimultaneously?
WhatSperlingwasconcernedwithwaswhathebelievedtobeaveryshorttermmemory,rightattheleveloftheretina. Hedevelopedthepartialreportprocedure. Usingthisprocedurehedemonstratediconicstorage. Averylargeamountofinformationisavailableinparallelontheicon.
Thefunctionoficonicstoragemaybetomaintainavisualimagefromoneeyefixationtoanother. Erasure,inordertopermitanewsampleoccursaboutfourtimespersecond.
Saccadiceyemovementsappeartocausetheerasure.
Posner'sworkonthekindsofcodesweusetoprocessinformation. Hewasinterestedinhowwerecodephysicalsensationsintothenamesweattachtothephysicalobjectsthesensationsrepresent.
Presentoneletter,thenaftersomeinterval,presentasecondletter. Thesubject'sresponseissimplytodecidewhetherthesecondletteristhesameasthefirst. Buttherearetwodifferentlettersthatarethesame. AcanbefollowedbyA,ora.
Posnerdemonstratesthisinasecondconditioninvolving asecondkindofvariableintervalbetweenthefirstansecondletter.
SaulSternberggotinterestedinrecognitionprocessesandwhetherthesearchofmemoryinvolvedserialsearchorparallelsearch.
Eachdigitaddedabout38msectoRT. Soeachcomparisonprocesstookaboutthatlong.
Noticethat"no"responsestooklongerthan"yes"responses.
NextSternbergaskedabouttheeffectofdegradingthestimulusthatwastobejudgedamemberofthepositivememorysetornotamember.
1. Ifthedegradeddigitslowstherateofcomparison,theslopeshouldincrease.
2. Ifthedegradeddigitlengthensencodingtime,butwhileencodingitwecleanitup,thenRTshouldincreasebyaconstantamountindependentofthenumberofitemsintheSTMset.
Thefindingswerethatdegradingthetestdigitmostlyaffectsencodingtime. Theeffectofdegradationwascompensatedduringencoding. AccordingtoSternberg,whatthesubjectsapparentlydidwastonormalizethedegradedtestdigit,attachanameit,andthencomparethenametothepositivesetinSTM.
AtkinsonandShiffrinproposedamultistoremodelofmemory,whichisbaseduponacomputermetaphor. TheybeginwithadistinctionbetweenStructuralfeaturesofmemoryandControlprocesses.
Structuralfeaturesarethephysicalsystem.
Controlprocessesaretheprocessesthatareinsomesenseunderthecontroloftheperson. Itistheperson'soptiontousethemornotusethem. Thesewouldclearlybeexpectedtochangewithdevelopment.
(1) Structuralfeaturescorrespondtothehardwareandsystemsprogramsthatcannotbemodifiedbythecomputeruser.
(2)Controlprocessescorrespondtoprogramsequencesthatreadilycanbeestablishedandmodifiedatthewillofthecomputeruser.
(a)Thesensoryregister.(b)Shorttermstoreorshorttermmemoryorworkingmemory. (c) Longtermstoreorlongtermmemory.
Controlprocessescontroltheflowofinformationwithinandbetweenthestructuralcomponents.
Overall,activememoryisbestconceivedofintermsoftheflowofinformationintoandoutoftheshorttermstore. ShorttermstoreisworkingmemoryisconsciousnessforAtkinsonandShiffrin.
Whenaitemisinshorttermstore,closelyrelatedinformationinlongtermmemoryisactivatedforpotentialentrancetoshorttermstore. Thisissometimescalledspreadingactivation. Whatthepersondoesisactivatealikelysubsetofinformation,placeitinshorttermmemory,andscanit.
EdithNeimarkandhercolleaguesandothershavereportedaseriesofstudiesonthedevelopmentofcontrolprocesses.
Inonestudytheyused24pictures,thatwereclassifiableas(a)animals,(b)vehicles,(c)clothing,and(d)furniture.
Thesubjectsintheexperimentwerefromgrades1,3,4,5,6,andcollegestudents.
Theygavethreeconsecutivetrials.
(1)Namethe24pictures.
(2)Theywerethengivena3minutestudyperiod.
(3)Recallasmanyofthepictures,byname,astheycould.
Therewerethreetrialsthateachembodiedallthreeparts.
Theyderivedaclusteringmeasurefromtherecallprotocols. Ontheamountofclusteringduringrecallthismeasurerevealedthat1&3<5&6 Therewasanegativecorrelation,-.33,betweenthenumberofitemsrecalledandthetotaltimethesubjectsspenttryingtorecall. Withrespecttodeliberateorganizationduringthestudyperiods,1&3<5&6 Interestingly,theygotmoreclusteringintocategoriesduringrecallthansortingintocategoriesduringstudy. Neimarkidentifiestwofeaturesofthecontrolprocessesinmemorythatseemtochangedevelopmentally. (1)Thewaytoorganizealistforefficientencoding. (2)Thewaytokeeptrackofwhathasbeenreadoutofmemory. Youngchildrenlackboth (1)and (2). Olderchildrenhavetheskilltoclusterduringrecall,butdonotdeliberatelyusetheskillduringthestudyinterval. Collegestudentshavebothskil
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