复习题与答案语言学基本知识与技能.docx
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复习题与答案语言学基本知识与技能.docx
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复习题与答案语言学基本知识与技能
ChapterOne
Introduction
I.Whatislinguistics?
Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Linguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butitstudieslanguagesingeneral.Itisascientificstudybecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.
II.Thescopeoflinguistics
1.Phonetics:
Thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunicationledtotheestablishmentofphonetics.
2.Phonology:
dealswithhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication.
3.Morphology:
Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedandcombinedtoformwordshasconstitutedthebranchofstudycalledmorphology.
4.Syntax:
Thecombinationofwordstoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguagesisgovernedbyrules.Thestudyoftheserulesconstitutesamajorbranchoflinguisticstudiescalledsyntax.
5.Semantics:
Thestudyofmeaningisknownassemantics.
6.Pragmatics:
Whenthestudyofmeaningisconducted,notinisolation,butinthecontextoflanguageuse,itbecomesanotherbranchoflinguisticstudycalledpragmatics.
7.Sociolinguitics:
Thestudyofsocialaspectsoflanguagesanditsrelationwithsocietyformthecoreofthebranchcalledsociolinguitics.
8.Psycholinguisticsrelatesthestudyoflanguagetopsychology.
9.Appliedlinguistics:
Findingsinlinguisticsstudiescanoftenbeappliedtothesolutionofsuchpracticalproblemsastherecoveryofspeechability.Thestudyofsuchapplicationsisgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.
III.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics
1.Prescriptivevs.descriptive
Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviourinusinglanguage,itissaidtobeprescriptive.
2.Synchronicvs.diachronic
Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.
3.Speechandwriting
Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguageforsomeobviousreasons.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.
4.Langueandparole
ThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebytheSwisslinguistF.deSaussureintheearly20thcentury.LangueandparoleareFrenchwords.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse.
5.Competenceandperformance
ThedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformancewasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.
6.Traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics
TraditionalgrammarreferstothestudiesoflanguagebeforethepublicationofF.deSaussure’sbookCourseinGeneralLinguisticsin1916.Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinseveralbasicways.
First,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.
Second,Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimarynotthewritten.
Then,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.
IV.Whatislanguage?
Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.
1.Designfeatures
1)Arbitrariness
Languageisarbitrary.Thismeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.
2)Productivity
Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.
3)Duality
Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerorbasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.Thisdualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge.
4)Displacement
Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Thisiswhat“displacement”means.Thispropertyprovidesspeakerswithanopportunitytotalkaboutawiderangeofthings,freefrombarrierscausedbyseparationintimeandplace.
5)Culturaltransmission
Humancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasiswhilethedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Itispassedfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.
2.FunctionsofLanguage
1)Informative
Itisthemajorroleoflanguage.Theuseoflanguagetorecordthefactsisaprerequisiteofsocialdevelopment.
2)Interpersonalfunction
Itisthemostimportantsociologicaluseoflanguage,bywhichpeopleestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.
Attachedtotheinterpersonalfunctionoflanguageisitsfunctionoftheexpressionofidentity.
3)Performative
ThisconceptoriginatesfromthephilosophicalstudyoflanguagepresentedbyAustinandSearle,whosetheorynowformsthebackboneofpragmatics.
Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersonsasinmarriageceremonies,theblessingofchildrenandthenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony.Thekindoflanguageemployedinperformativeverbalactsisusuallyquiteformalandevenritualized.
4)Emotivefunction
Theemotivefunctionoflanguageisonethemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitissocrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.e.g.God,my,Damnit...
5)Phaticcommunion
ThetermoriginatesfromMalinnowski’sstudyofthefunctionsoflanguageperformedbyTrobriandIslanders.Itreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage.
Weallusesmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionssuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Nicedaytomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeople.
6)Recreationalfunction
Noonewilldenytheuseoflanguageforthesheerjoyofusingitsuchasababy’sbabbling.
7)Metalingualfunction
Ourlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutitself.Forexample,wecanusetheword“book”totalkaboutthebook.
ChapterTwo
Phonology
I.Speechproductionandperception
Aspeechsoundgoesthroughathreestepprocess.Naturally,thestudyofsoundsisdividedintothreeareas,eachdealingwithonepartoftheprogress.
1.Articulatoryphonetics
Itisthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.
2.Acousticphonetics
Itisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech.
3.Auditoryphonetics
Itisconcernedwiththeperceptionofthesoundsproducedinspeech.
II.Speechorgans
Speechorgansarealsoknownasvocalorgans.Theyarethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.
Speechorgansmainlyconsistofthevocalcordsandthreecavitieswhicharethepharynx,theoralcavityandthenasalcavity.
Thevocalcordsareinthelarynx,thefrontpartofwhichiscalled“theAdam’sApple.”
III.Consonants
ClassificationofEnglishconsonants
Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintwoways:
oneisintermsofmannerofarticulationandtheotherisintermsofplaceofarticulation.
IV.Vowels
ClassificationofEnglishvowels
Vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfront,central,andbackaccordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighest.Vowelscanalsobedistinguishedaccordingtotheopennessofthemouth:
closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,andopenvowels.
V.Phonologyandphonetics
1.Phoneticsisconcernedwiththegeneralnatureofspeechsoundwhilephonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.
2.Phone,phoneme,andallophone
–Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.
–Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.
–Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample,thephoneme/l/inEnglishcanberealizedasdark/l/,clear/l/,etc.whichareallophonesofthephoneme.
3.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair
Ifthephoneticallysimilarsoundsaretwodistinctivephonemes,theyaresaidtoformaphonemiccontrast,e.g./p/and/b/in/pit/and/bit/.
Iftheyareallophonesofthesamephoneme,thentheydonotdistinguishmeaning,butcomplementeachotherindistribution.Forinstance,theclear/l/alwaysoccursbeforeavowelwhilethedark/l/alwaysoccursbetweenavowelandaconsonant,orattheendofaword.Sotheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.
Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminim
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