English grammar 语法概述.docx
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English grammar 语法概述.docx
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Englishgrammar语法概述
Englishgrammar
EnglishgrammaristhebodyofrulesthatdescribethestructureofexpressionsintheEnglishlanguage.Thisincludesthestructureofwords,phrases,clauses,andsentences.
Therearehistorical,social,andregionalvariationsofEnglish.DivergencesfromthegrammardescribedhereoccurinsomedialectsofEnglish.Thisarticledescribesageneralizedpresent-dayStandardEnglish,theformofspeechfoundintypesofpublicdiscourseincludingbroadcasting,education,entertainment,government,andnewsreporting,includingbothformalandinformalspeech.TherearecertaindifferencesingrammarbetweenthestandardformsofBritishEnglish,AmericanEnglish,andAustralianEnglish,althoughtheseareinconspicuouscomparedwiththelexicalandpronunciationdifferences.
Contents
[hide]
∙1Wordclassesandphrases
o1.1Nouns
▪1.1.1Nounphrases
o1.2Determiners
o1.3Pronouns
▪1.3.1Personalpronouns
▪1.3.2Demonstrativeandinterrogativepronouns
▪1.3.3Relativepronouns
▪1.3.4Thereaspronoun
▪1.3.5Otherpronouns
o1.4Verbs
▪1.4.1Verbphrases
o1.5Adjectives
▪1.5.1Comparison
▪1.5.2Adjectivephrases
o1.6Adverbs
▪1.6.1Adverbphrases
o1.7Prepositions
o1.8Conjunctions
∙2Negation
∙3Clauseandsentencestructure
o3.1Questions
o3.2Dependentclauses
o3.3Otherusesofinversion
o3.4Imperatives
o3.5Ellipticalconstructions
∙4HistoryofEnglishgrammars
∙5Seealso
∙6Notesandreferences
∙7Bibliography
o7.1Grammarbooks
o7.2Monographs
∙8Externallinks
[edit]Wordclassesandphrases
Thereareeightwordclasses,orpartsofspeech,thataredistinguishedinEnglish:
nouns,determiners,pronouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs,prepositions,andconjunctions.(Determiners,traditionallyclassifiedalongwithadjectives,havenotalwaysbeenregardedasaseparatepartofspeech.)Interjectionsareanotherwordclass,butthesearenotdescribedhereastheydonotformpartoftheclauseandsentencestructureofthelanguage.[1]
Nouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbsformopenclasses –wordclassesthatreadilyacceptnewmembers,suchasthenouncelebutante(acelebritywhofrequentsthefashioncircles),theadverb24/7(asinIamworkingonit24/7),andsimilarrelativelynewwords.[1]Theothersareregardedasclosedclasses.Forexample,itisrareforanewpronountobeadmittedtothelanguage.
Englishwordsarenotgenerallymarkedforwordclass.Itisnotusuallypossibletotellfromtheformofawordwhichclassitbelongstoexcept,tosomeextent,inthecaseofwordswithinflectionalendingsorderivationalsuffixes.Ontheotherhand,somewordsbelongtomorethanonewordclass.Forexampleruncanserveaseitheraverboranoun(theseareregardedastwodifferentlexemes).[2]Lexemesmaybeinflectedtoexpressdifferentgrammaticalcategories.Thelexemerunhastheformsruns,ran,andrunning.[2]Wordsinoneclasscansometimesbederivedfromthoseinanother.Thishasthepotentialtogiverisetonewwords.Thenounaerobicshasrecentlygivenrisetotheadjectiveaerobicized.[2]
Wordscombinetoformphrases.Aphrasetypicallyservesthesamefunctionasawordfromsomeparticularwordclass.[2]Forexample,myverygoodfriendPeterisaphrasethatcanbeusedinasentenceasifitwereanoun,andisthereforecalledanounphrase.Similarly,adjectivephrasesandadverbphrasesfunctionasiftheywereadjectivesoradverbs,butwithothertypesofphrasestheterminologyhasdifferentimplications.Forexample,averbphraseconsistsofaverbtogetherwithanyobjectsandotherdependents;aprepositionalphraseconsistsofaprepositiontogetherwithitscomplement(andisthereforeusuallyatypeofadverbphrase);andadeterminerphraseisatypeofnounphrasecontainingadeterminer.
[edit]Nouns
NounsformthelargestEnglishwordclass.Therearemanycommonsuffixesusedtoformnounsfromothernounsorfromothertypesofwords,suchas-age(asinshrinkage),-hood(asinsisterhood),andsoon,[2]althoughmanynounsarebaseformsnotcontaininganysuchsuffix(suchascat,grass,France).Nounsarealsooftencreatedbyconversionofverbsoradjectives,aswiththewordstalkandreading(aboringtalk,theassignedreading).
Unlikeinmanyrelatedlanguages,Englishnounsdonothavegrammaticalgender(althoughmanynounsreferspecificallytomaleorfemalepersonsoranimals,likemother,father,bull,tigress;seeGenderinEnglish).Nounsaresometimesclassifiedsemantically(bytheirmeanings)aspropernounsandcommonnouns(Cyrus,Chinavs.frog,milk)orasconcretenounsandabstractnouns(book,laptopvs.heat,prejudice).[3]Agrammaticaldistinctionisoftenmadebetweencount(countable)nounssuchasclockandcity,andnon-count(uncountable)nounssuchasmilkanddecor.[4]Somenounscanfunctiontobeeithercountableoruncountablesuchtheword"wine"(Thisisagoodwine,Ipreferredwine).
Countablenounsgenerallyhavesingularandpluralforms.[3]Inmostcasesthepluralisformedfromthesingularbyadding-[e]s(asindogs,bushes),althoughtherearealsoirregularforms(woman/women,medium/media,etc.),includingcaseswherethetwoformsareidentical(sheep,series).Formoredetails,seeEnglishplural.
Certainnounscantakepluralverbseventhoughtheyaresingularinform,asinThegovernmentwere ...(wherethegovernmentisconsideredtorefertothepeopleconstitutingthegovernment).This,aformofsynesis,ismorecommoninBritishthanAmericanEnglish.SeeEnglishplural:
Singularswithcollectivemeaningtreatedasplural.
Englishnounsarenotmarkedforcaseastheyareinsomelanguages,buttheyhavepossessiveforms,formedbytheadditionof-'s(asinJohn's,children's),orjustanapostrophe(withnochangeinpronunciation)inthecaseof-[e]spluralsandsometimesotherwordsendingwith-s(thedogs'owners,Jesus'love).Moregenerally,theendingcanbeappliedtonounphrases(asinthemanyousawyesterday'ssister);seebelow.Thepossessiveformcanbeusedeitherasadeterminer(John'scat)orasanounphrase(John'sistheonenexttoJane's).Fordetails,seeEnglishpossessive.
[edit]Nounphrases
Nounphrasesarephrasesthatfunctiongrammaticallyasnounswithinsentences,forexampleasthesubjectorobjectofaverb.Mostnounphraseshaveanounastheirhead.[4]
AnEnglishnounphrasetypicallytakesthefollowingform(notallelementsneedbepresent):
Determiner
+
Pre-modifiers
+
NOUN
+
Postmodifiers/Complement
Inthisstructure:
∙thedeterminermaybeanarticle(the,a[n])orotherequivalentword,asdescribedinthefollowingsection.Inmanycontextsitisrequiredforanounphrasetoincludesomedeterminer.
∙pre-modifiersincludeadjectivesandsomeadjectivephrases(suchasred,reallylovely),andnounadjuncts(suchascollegeinthephrasethecollegestudent).Adjectivalmodifiersusuallycomebeforenounadjuncts.
∙acomplementorpostmodifier[4]maybeaprepositionalphrase(... ofLondon),arelativeclause(like ...whichwesawyesterday),certainadjectiveorparticipialphrases(... sittingonthebeach),oradependentclauseorinfinitivephraseappropriatetothenoun(like... thattheworldisroundafteranounsuchasfactorstatement,or... totravelwidelyafteranounsuchasdesire).
Anexampleofanounphrasethatincludesalloftheabove-mentionedelementsisthatratherattractiveyoungcollegestudentthatyouweretalkingto.Herethatisthedeterminer,ratherattractiveandyoungareadjectivalpre-modifiers,collegeisanounadjunct,studentisthenounservingastheheadofthephrase,andthatyouweretalkingtoisapost-modifier(arelativeclauseinthiscase).Noticetheorderofthepre-modifiers;thedeterminerthatmustcomefirstandthenounadjunctcollegemustcomeaftertheadjectivalmodifiers.
Coordinatingconjunctionssuchasand,or,andbutcanbeusedatvariouslevelsinnounphrases,asinJohn,Paul,andMary;thematchinggreencoatandhat;adangerousbutexcitingride;apersonsittingdownorstandingup.SeeConjunctionsbelowformoreexplanation.
Nounphrasescanalsobeplacedinapposition(wheretwoconsecutivephrasesrefertothesamething),asinthatpresident,AbrahamLincoln, ...(wherethatpresidentandAbrahamLincolnareinapposition).Insomecontextsthesamecanbeexpressedbyaprepositionalphrase,asinthetwincursesoffamineandpestilence(meaning"thetwincurses"thatare"famineandpestilence").
Particularformsofnounphrasesinclude:
∙phrasesformedbythedeterminerthewithanadjective,asinthehomeless,theEnglish(thesearepluralphrasesreferringtohomelesspeopleorEnglishpeopleingeneral);
∙phraseswithapronounratherthananounasthehead(seebelow);
∙phrasesconsistingjustofapossessive;
∙infinitiveandgerundphrases,incertainpositions;
∙certainclauses,suchasthatclausesandrelativeclauseslikewhathesaid,incertainpositions.
[edit]Determiners
Mainarticles:
EnglishdeterminersandEnglisharticles
Englishdeterminersconstitutearelativelysmallclassofwords.Theyincludethearticlesthe,a[n](andinsomecontextssome),certaindemonstrativeandinterrogativewordssuchasthis,that,andwhich,possessivessuchasmyandwhose(theroleofdeterminercanalsobeplayedbynounpossessiveformssuchasJohn'sandthegirl's),variousquantifyingwordslikeall,many,various,andnumerals(one,two,etc.).Therearealsomanyphrases(suchasacoupleof)thatcanplaytheroleofdeterminers.
Determinersareusedintheformationofnounphrases(seeabove).Manywordsthatserveasdeterminerscanalsobeu
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