INTRODUCTION to.docx
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INTRODUCTION to.docx
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INTRODUCTIONto
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~KarlMarxINTRODUCTIONTO
ACONTRIBUTIONTOACRITIQUEOFPOLITICALECONOMY~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~WrittenbetweenendofAugustandmiddleSeptember1857.
MarxintendedthistobetheIntroductiontohis_ContributiontoaCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy_(1859),but,ashisPrefacetothatworknotes,hedecidedtoomitit.
Theunfinishedroughdraft,whichwasfoundamongMarx'spapersafterhisdeath.Firstpublished1903,in_DieNeueZeit_.Wouldbecomethefirstmanuscriptinthe_Grundrisse_.
I.PRODUCTION,CONSUMPTION,DISTRIBUTION,EXCHANGE(CIRCULATION)1.Production(a)Tobeginwith,thequestionunderdiscussionis_materialproduction_.
Individualsproducinginasociety,andhencethesociallydeterminedproductionofindividuals,isofcoursethepointofdeparture.Thesolitaryandisolatedhunterorfisherman,whoservesAdamSmithandRicardoasastartingpoint,isoneoftheunimaginativefantasiesof18thcenturyromancesalaRobinsonCrusoe;anddespitetheassertionsofsocialhistorians,thesebynomeanssignifysimplyareactionagainstover-refinementandreversiontoamisconceivednaturallife.
NomoreisRousseau's_contratsocial_,whichbymeansofacontractestablishesarelationshipandconnectionbetweensubjectsthatarebynatureindependent,atallbasedonthiskindofnaturalism.ThisisanillusionandnothingbuttheaestheticillusionofthesmallandbigRobinsonades.Itis,onthecontrary,theanticipationof"bourgeoissociety",whichbegantoevolveinthe16thcenturyandinthe18thcenturymadegiantstridestowardsmaturity.Theindividualinthissocietyoffreecompetitionseemstoberidofthenaturaltiesetc.
whichmadehimanappurtenanceofaparticular,limitedaggregationofhumanbeingsinprevioushistoricalepochs.Theprophetsofthe18thcentury,onwhoseshouldersAdamSmithandRicardowerestillwhollystanding,envisagedthisindividual--aproductofthedissolutionoffeudalsocietyontheonehandandtheproductiveforcesevolvedsincethe16thcenturyontheother--asanidealwhoseexistencebelongstothepast.Theysawthisindividualnotasahistoricalresult,butasthestarting-pointofhistory;notassomethingevolvinginthecourseofhistory,butpositedbynature,becauseforthemthisindividualwasinconformitywithnature,inkeepingwiththeirideaofhumannature.
Thisdelusionhasbeencharacteristicofeverynewepochhitherto.
Steuart,whoinsomerespectswasinoppositiontothe18thcentury,and,asanaristocrat,tendedrathertoregardthingsfromahistoricalstandpoint,avoidedthisnaiveview.
Thefurtherbackwetracethecourseofhistory,themoredoestheindividual,andaccordinglyalsotheproducingindividual,appeartobedependentandtobelongtoalargerwhole.Atfirst,theindividualinastillquitenaturalmannerispartofthefamilyandofthetribewhichevolvesfromthefamily;later,heispartofacommunity,ofoneofthedifferentformsofcommunitywhicharisefromtheconflictandthemergingoftribes.Itisnotuntilthe18thcenturythat,inthebourgeoissociety,thevariousformsofthesocialtextureconfronttheindividualasmerelymeanstowardhisprivateends,asexternalnecessity.Buttheepochwhichproducesthisstandpoint,namelythatoftheisolatedindividual,ispreciselytheepochofthe(asyet)mosthighly-developedsocial(accordingtothisstandpoint,general)relations.Manisa"zoonpolitikon"[socialanimal]inthemostliteralsense:
heisnotonlyasocialanimal,butananimalthatcanindividualizehimselfonlywithinsociety.Productionbyanisolatedindividualoutsidesociety--arareevent,whichmightoccurwhenacivilizedpersonwhohasalreadyabsorbedthedynamicsocialforcesisaccidentallycastintothewilderness--isjustaspreposterousasthedevelopmentofspeechwithoutindividualswholive_together_andtalktooneanother.Itisunnecessarytodwelluponthispointfurther.Itneednothavebeenmentionedatall,ifthisinanity,whichhadrhymeandreasonintheworksof18thcenturywriters,werenotexpresslyintroducedoncemoreintomodernpoliticaleconomybyBastiat,Carey,Proudhon,etc.ItisofcourseverypleasantforProudhon,forinstance,tobeabletoexplaintheoriginofaneconomicrelationship--whosehistoricalevolutionhedoesnotknow--inanhistorico-philosophicalmannerbymeansofmythology;allegingthatAdamorPrometheushitupontheready-madeidea,whichwasthenputintopractice,etc.Nothingismoretediousanddullthanthecommonplacephantasiesof_locuscommunis_.
Thus,whenwespeakofproduction,wealwayshaveinmindproductionatadefinitestageofsocialdevelopment--ofproductionbyindividualsinasociety.Itmightthereforeseemsthat,inordertospeakofproductionatall,wemusteithertracethevariousphasesinthehistoricalprocessofdevelopment,orelsedeclarefromtheverybeginningthatweareexamining_one_particularhistoricalperiod,asforinstancemodernbourgeoisproduction,whichis,indeed,ourrealsubjectmatter.Allperiodsofproduction,however,havecertainfeaturesincommon;theyhavecertaincommoncategories._Productioningeneral_isanabstraction,butasensibleabstractioninsofarasitactuallyemphasizesanddefinesthecommonaspectsandthusavoidsrepetition.Yetthis_general_concept,orthecommonaspectwhichhasbeenbroughttolightbycomparison,isitselfamultifariouscompoundcomprisingdivergentcategories.Someelementsarefoundinallepochs,othersarecommontoafewepochs.Themostmodernperiodandthemostancientperiodwillhave[certain]categoriesincommon.Productionwithoutthemisinconceivable.But,althoughthemosthighly-developedlanguageshavelawsandcategoriesincommonwiththemostprimitivelanguages,itispreciselytheirdivergencefromthesegeneralandcommonfeatureswhichconstitutestheirdevelopment.Itisnecessarytodistinguishthesedefinitionswhichapplytoproductioningeneral,inordernottooverlooktheessentialdifferencesexistingdespitetheunitythatfollowsfromtheveryfactthatthesubject(mankind)andobject(nature)arethesame.Forinstance,onfailuretoperceivethisfactdependstheentirewisdomofmoderneconomistswhoprovetheeternityandharmonyofexistingsocialrelations.Forexample,noproductionispossiblewithoutaninstrumentofproduction,evenifthisinstrumentissimplythehand.Itisnotpossiblewithoutpast,accumulatedlabor,evenifthislaborisonlytheskillacquiredbyrepeatedpracticeandconcentratedinthehandofasavage.Capitalis,amongotherthings,alsoaninstrumentofinstrumentofproduction,andalsopast,materializedlabor.Consequently,capitalisauniversalandeternalrelationgivenbynature--thatis,providedoneomitspreciselythosespecificfactorswhichturnthe"instrumentofproduction"or"accumulatedlabor"intocapital.Thewholehistoryoftherelationsofproductionthusappears,forinstanceinCarey'swritings,asafalsificationmalevolentlybroughtaboutbygovernment.
Justasthereisnoproductioningeneral,sothereisalsonogeneralproduction.Productionisalwaysaparticularbranchofproduction--e.g.agriculture,cattle-breeding,manufacture--oritisthe_totality_ofproduction.Politicaleconomy,however,isnottechnology.Therelationsofthegeneralcategoriesofproductionatagivensocialstagetotheparticularformsofproductionistobesetforthelsewhere(later).
Finally,notonlyisproduction_particular_production,butitisinvariablyonlyadefinitesocialcorpus,asocialsubject,thatisengagedinawiderornarrowertotalityofproductionspheres.Therelationofacademicpresentationtotheactualprocessdoesnotbelonghereeither.ProductioningeneralParticularbranchesofproduction.
Totalityofproduction.
Itisfashionabletoprefaceeconomicworkswithageneralpart--anditisjustthiswhichappearsundertheheading"Production",seeforinstanceJohnStuartMill--whichdealswiththegeneralconditionsofallproduction.Thisgeneralpartcomprisesorpurportstocomprise:
1.Theconditionswithoutwhichproductioncannotbecarriedon.
Thismeans,infact,onlythattheessentialfactorsrequiredforanykindofproductionareindicated.Butthisamountsactually,asweshallsee,toafewverysimpledefinitions,whichbecomereducedtotrivialtautologies.
2.Theconditionswhichpromoteproductiontoalargerorsmallerdegree,asinthecaseofAdamSmith'sprogressiveandstagnantstateofsociety.
Togivethis,whichinSmith'sworkhasitsvalueasan_apercu_,togiveitscientificsignificance,researchintothe_degreeofproductivity_atvariousperiodsinthedevelopmentofindividualnationswouldhavetobeconducted;strictlyspeaking,suchaninvestigationliesoutsidetheframeworkofthesubject.Thoseaspectswhicharehoweverrelevanttoitoughttobementionedinconnectionwiththedevelopmentofcompetition,accumulation,etc.
Theanswerinitsgeneralformamountstothegeneralstatementthatanindustrialnationachievesitshighestproductivitywhichitisaltogetherattheheightofitshistoricaldevelopment.(Infact,anationisattheheightofitshistoricaldevelopmentsolongas,notthegain,butgainingremainsitsprincipalaim.Inthisrespect,theYankeesaresuperiortotheEnglish.)Orelsethat,forexample,certainraces,formations,climates,naturalcircumstances,suchasmaritimeposition,fertilityofthesoil,etc.,aremoreconducivetoproductionthatothers.This,again,amountstothetautologicalstatementthattheprodu
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