工程造价毕业论文外文文献.docx
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工程造价毕业论文外文文献.docx
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工程造价毕业论文外文文献
工程造价毕业设计外文文献及译文
外文文献:
ConstructionStandardsandCosts
UCIrvinenewconstructionpursuesperformancegoalsandappliesqualitystandardsthataffectthecostsofcapitalprojects.Periodicre-examinationofthesegoalsandstandardsiswarranted.
Constructioncostsarenot“high”or“low”intheabstract,butratherinrelationtospecificqualitystandardsandthedesignsolutions,means,andmethodsusedtoattainthesestandards.Thus,evaluatingwhetherconstructioncostsareappropriateinvolves:
•first,determiningwhetherqualitystandardsareexcessive,insufficient,or
appropriate;
•second,determiningwhetherresultantprojectcostsarereasonableparedtoprojectswithessentiallythesamequalityparameters.
“Quality”enpassesthedurabilityofbuildingsystemsandfinishes;therobustnessandlife-cycleperformanceofbuildingsystems;theaestheticsofmaterials,theirposition,andtheirdetailing;andtheresource-sustainabilityandefficiencyofthebuildingasanoverallsystem.
OverallGoalsandQualityStandards
UCIrvine,inordertosupportdistinguishedresearchandacademicprograms,buildsfacilitiesofhighquality.Assuch,UCIrvine’sfacilitiesaimtoconveythe“lookandfeel,”aswellasembodytheinherentconstructionquality,ofthebestfacilitiesofotherUCcampuses,leadingpublicuniversities,andotherresearchinstitutionswithwhomwepeteforfaculty,students,sponsoredresearch,andgeneralreputation.
Since1992,newbuildingshavebeendesignedtoachievethesefivebroadgoals:
1.Newbuildingsmust“createaplace,”ratherthanconstitutestand-alonestructures,formingsocial,aesthetic,contextually-sensitiverelationshipswithneighboringbuildingsandthelargercampus.
2.Newbuildingsreinforceaconsistentdesignframeworkofclassicalcontextualarchitecture,appliedinwaysthatconveyafeelingofpermanenceandqualityandinterpretedinwaysthatmeetthecontemporaryandchangingneedsofamodernresearchuniversity.
3.Newbuildingsemploymaterials,systems,anddesignfeaturesthatwillavoidtheexpenseofmajormaintenance(definedas>1percentofvalue)fortwentyyears.
4.Newbuildingsapply“sustainability”principles--notably,outperformingTitle24(California’senergycode)byatleast20percent.
5.Capitalconstructionprojectsaredesignedanddeliveredwithinthe
approvedprojectbudget,scope,andschedule.
UCIrvine’sgoalsforsustainablematerialsandenergyperformancewereadoptedpartlyforenvironmentalreasons,andpartlytoreversesubstantialoperatingbudgetdeficits.
Thelatterproblemsincludedamulti-milliondollarutilitiesdeficitthatwasgrowingrapidlyintheearly‘90s,andmillionsofdollarsofunfundedmajormaintenancethatwasemergingprematurelyinbuildingsonly10-20yearsold.Withoutthequalityandperformancestandardsadoptedin1992,utilitiesdeficitsandunfundedmajormaintenancecostswouldhaveexceeded$20millionduringthepastdecade,andthesecostswouldstillberisingout-of-control.
UCIrvine’smaterialsstandards,buildingsystemsstandards,sustainabilityandenergyefficiencycriteria,andsiteimprovementsalladdcostincrementsthatcanonlybeaffordedthroughaggressivecostmanagement.Institutionsthatcannotmanagecapitalcoststendtobuildprojectsthatconsumeexcessiveenergy,thatcostalottomaintain,thatsufferprematuremajormaintenancecosts,andthatrequirehighcoststomodify.Suchproblemstendtopoundandspiraldownwardintoincreasinglycostlyconsequences.
Everyadministratorwithfacilitiesexperienceunderstandsthisdynamic.Withouteffectiveconstructioncostmanagement,qualitywouldsufferandUCIrvinewouldexperiencealloftheseproblems.
Thebalanceofthisdocumentoutlinesingreaterdetailthebuildingperformancecriteriaandqualitystandardsgenerallystatedabove,organizedaccordingtobuildingsystemsponentclasses.Eachsectiondiscusseskeycost-drivers,cost-controlstrategies,andimportantcosttrade-offs.Designpracticescitedareconsistentlyapplied(althoughsomefallshortofhardandfast“rules”).
BuildingOrganizationandMassing
Constructioncostmanagementstartswiththefundamentalsofbuildingorganizationandmassing.UCIrvine’snewstructures’floorplatestendtohavelength-to-widthratios<1.5,toavoidtriggeringdisproportionatecostsofexternalcladding,circulation,andhorizontalmechanicaldistribution.Ournewbuildingstendtobeatleastthreefloors
high--talleriffloorplateareasdonotdipbelowacost-effectivethreshold,andgenerallytallerinthecaseofnon-laboratorybuildings(butnotsotallthatahigh-risecostpenaltyisincurred).Otherdesignratiosareobserved,suchasexteriorcladdingarea/floorarea<0.5,androof+foundationarea/floorarea<0.4.
Architecturalarticulationisgenerallyachievedthroughtexturedorenrichedmaterials,integralmaterialdetailing(suchasconcreterevealpatterning),andapplieddetailing(e.g.,2windowframesandsills),particularlyatthebuildingbase.Large-scalearticulationisconcentratedattheroofline(e.g.,shapedroofforms)andatthepedestrianlevel(e.g.,arcades),whereitwill“createthebiggestbangforthebuck,”ratherthanthroughmodulatingthebuildingform,itself.Thisismorethanasubtledesignphilosophy,asthecostimpactissubstantial.
Labbuildingspletedinthepastdecadeseparatelaboratoryandnon-laboratoryfunctionsintodistinct,adjoinedstructures(althoughsuchabuildingmaylooklikeonestructure).Consolidatednon-laboratoryfunctionsincludefaculty,departmental,staff,post-doc,andgraduatestudentoffices;restrooms;circulation(elevators,lobbies,primarystairways);classrooms,seminarrooms,conferencerooms,andsocialareasdesignedto
fosterinteractionandtoprovideasafeareaforeatinganddrinking;drylabsanddrylabsupportfunctions;andgeneraladministrativesupport.
Consolidatingthesefunctionsintoaseparatestructureprovidesconsiderablecostsavings:
lower-costHVAC(heating/ventilation/air-conditioning)system,widercolumnspacing,lowerfloorstiffness(lessstringentvibrationcriterion),lowerfloor-loading,fewerfire-controlfeaturesandothercoderequirements,steel-framedorsteel/concretehybridstructuralsystemwithconcreteflat-slabflooringsystem,smallerfootings,and(typically)curtainwallfenestration.Thisapproachusuallyenablesofficestohaveoperablewindows.
Thistwo-buildingapproachcanbeseenclearlyatGillespieNeurosciencesBuilding,theSpragueBuilding,HewittHall,andtheUCIMedicalCenterHealthSciencesLaboratory,whereconsolidatingandseparatingnon-laboratoryfunctionssaved7-10percentinoverallconstructioncostsand15percent/yearinenergyexpense.(Thenon-laboratorybuildingincursasmallfractionoftheenergyexpenseofthelaboratoryblock.)
Asetofdesignstrategies,appliedinbination,hasproveneffectiveincontrollingthecostoflaboratories:
•Utilizingaconsistentlabmodule
•Utilizingareasonablevibrationcriterionandlocatingultra-sensitiveconditionsat-gradeoremployingbenchtopvibrationisolation
•Using22ft.X22ft.column-spacing
•Concentratingfumehoodsandutilityrisersintoacentral“wetzone,”thus
limitinghorizontalmechanicaldistribution
•Concentratinglaboratorysupportareasintothecentralcoreofalaboratory
structure,whereutilitiesareavailablebutdaylightisnotneeded,thusenabling
labstructurestobe110-132feetwide
•Utilizingdual-usagecirculation/equipmentcross-corridorsthroughthiscentrallabsupportzone,withsufficientwidth(typically11feet)tolinethecorridorswithsharedequipmentwhileprovidingcross-circulationthroughthelabsupportzone
•Utilizingopenlaboratorylayoutwithoneormore“ghost”corridorsforintralabcirculation
•And,mostimportantly,concentratingnon-laboratoryfunctionsintoanadjoining,lower-coststructure(asdiscussedindetailabove).
Tofurthercontrollaboratoryconstructioncosts,non-standardfumehoodsizesareminimized,“generic”labcaseworkisspecified,laboratory-grademovabletablessubstituteforfixedcaseworkinsomelabbays,buildingDIsystemsprovideintermediatewaterquality(withlocalizedwaterpuritypolishinginthelab,ratherthanbuilding-wide),facility-widepipedservicesdonotincludegasesthatcanbecost-effectivelyprovidedlocallyviacanisters,andglass-washfacilitiesareconsolidated--typically,oneglasswashfacilityforanentirelaboratorybuilding.
Finally,ourdesignphilosophyleanstowardgeneric,modularlaboratoriessupportedbyarobustbuildinginfrastructure,ratherthanhighlycustomizedspaceswithlimitedcapacitytomakelaterchanges.Thisisanimportanttradeoff.Althoughsomepost-occupancyexpensesmaybenecessaryto“fine-tune”alaboratorytoaPI’srequirements,buildinginfrastructureelements–typicallyoversizedtwentypercent,includingHVACsupplyducts,exhaustsystemcapacity,emergencygeneratorcapacity,andelectricrisersandservicecapacity–seldomlimittheabilitytomodifylabstomeetresearcherneeds.
StructuralandFoundationSystems
Forbothcost-benefitreasonsandpastseismicperformance,UCIrvinefavorsconcreteshearwallorsteelbraced-framestructuralsystems.Thecorrelatingfoundationsystemsdependonsite-specificsoilconditions.Pastproblemswithundiscoveredsubstratesanduncharacterizedsoilconditionsareminimizedthroughextensive,pre-designsoil-testing.ThisminimizesrisktoboththeUniversityandthedesign/buildcontractor.
Whenfeasible,design/buildcontractorsareallowedflexibilitytoproposealternatestructuralorseismic-forcesystems.Allstructuralsystemdesignsmustpassapeerreview,accor
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