语言学第六章笔记和习题1Word版.docx
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语言学第六章笔记和习题1Word版
Chapter6Pragmatics
⏹----thestudyoflanguageinuseorlanguagecommunication;thestudyoftheuseofcontexttomakeinferenceaboutmeaning.
⏹----thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.
Whatarethedifferencesbetweenthetwolinguisticstudiesofmeaning–semanticsandpragmatics?
⏹Semanticsstudiesliteral,structuralorlexicalmeaning,whilepragmaticsstudiesnon-literal,implicit,intendedmeaning,orspeaker’smeaning.
⏹Semanticsiscontextindependent,decontextualized,whilepragmaticsiscontextdependent,contextualized.
⏹Semanticsdealswithwhatissaid,whilepragmaticsdealswithwhatisimplicatedorinferred.
Whatessentiallydistinguishsemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered
Ifitisnot,itissemantics.
Ifitis,itispragmatics.
⏹Pragmaticanalysisofmeaningisfirstandforemostconcernedwiththestudyofwhatiscommunicatedbyaspeaker/writerandinterpretedbyalistener/reader.
⏹Analysisofintentionalmeaningnecessarilyinvolvestheinterpretationofwhatpeopledothroughlanguageinaparticularcontext.
⏹Intendedmeaningmayormaynotbeexplicitlyexpressed.Pragmaticanalysisalsoexploreshowlisteners/readersmakeinferencesaboutwhatiscommunicated.
SomebasicnotionsinPragmatics
⏹Context
⏹Pragmaticsvs.semantics
⏹Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning
Context
⏹Context----abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer,suchasculturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,etc.….
Pragmaticsvs.semantics
⏹Semantics----isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).
⏹Pragmatics----thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration),e.g.
⏹“TodayisSunday”,semantically,itmeansthattodayisthefirstdayoftheweek;pragmatically,youcanmeanalotbysayingthis,alldependingonthecontextandtheintentionofthespeaker,say,makingasuggestionorgivinganinvitation…
Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning
----Sentencemeaning:
⏹Abstractandcontext-independentmeaning;
⏹literalmeaningofasentence;
⏹havingadyadicrelationasin:
WhatdoesXmean?
----utterancemeaning:
⏹concreteandcontext-dependentmeaning;
⏹intendedmeaningofaspeaker;
⏹havingatriadicrelationasin:
WhatdidyoumeanbyX?
Forexample,“Thebagisheavy”canmean
⏹abagbeingheavy(sentencemeaning);
⏹anindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag;
⏹thespeakerisdecliningsomeone’srequestforhelp.
Thedogisbarking.
Ifwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaself-containedunitinisolation,thenwetreatitasasentence.
Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasanutterance.
⏹Note:
Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonthesentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext;utterancemeaningisricherthansentencemeaning;itisidenticalwiththepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersthesentence.
⏹SpeechactsisatermderivedfromtheworkofthephilosopherJ.Austin(1962)andnowusedtorefertoatheorywhichanalyzestheroleofutterancesinrelationtothebehaviorofthespeakerandthehearerininterpersonalcommunication.Itaimstoanswerthequestion“Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?
”
⏹Inlinguisticcommunication,peopledonotmerelyexchangeinformation.Theyactuallydosomethingthroughtalkingorwritinginvariouscircumstances.Actionsperformedviaspeakingarecalledspeechacts.
Twotypesofutterances
⏹Constatives(叙述句)----statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable;
⏹Performatives(施为句)----sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.
⏹Note:
Sometimestheyareeasytogetconfused,e.g.“Itisrainingoutside”canbeaconstative,andalsoaperformative,forbyutteringsuchasentence,wemaynotonlystateafact,butinvolveintheactofinformingsomeoneabouttherain.
SomeExamplesofPerformatives
⏹“Ido”
⏹“InamethisshipElizabeth.”
⏹“Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.”
⏹“Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.”
⏹“Ideclarethemeetingopen.”
Austin’snewmodelofspeechacts
----AccordingtoAustin’snewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:
locutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.
⏹Thelocutionaryact----anactofsayingsomething,utteringwords,phrases,clauses,i.e.anactofmakingameaningfulutterance(literalmeaningofanutterance);
Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.
⏹Theillocutionaryact----anactperformedinsayingsomething:
insayingX,IwasdoingY(theintentionofthespeakerwhilespeaking).
⏹Theperlocutionaryact----anactperformedasaresultofsayingsomething:
bysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.
Itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.
Forexample,“Itiscoldhere.”
⏹Itslocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliteralmeaningtheweatherisclodhere;
⏹Itsillocutionaryactcanbearequestofthehearertoshutthewindow;
⏹Itsperlocutionaryactcanbethehearer’sshuttingthewindoworhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest.
----Analyzeonemoreexample:
“Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.”
Note:
Ofthethreeacts,whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithistheillocutionaryact.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.
⏹Analyzetheillocutionaryactsofthefollowingconversationbetweenacouple:
----(thetelephonerings)
----H:
That’thephone.
(1)
----W:
I’minthebathroom.
(2)
----H:
Okay.(3)
⏹Thisseeminglyincoherentconversationgoesonsuccessfullybecausethespeakersunderstandeachother’sillocutionaryacts:
⏹
(1) Makingarequestofhiswifetogoandanswerthephone.
⏹
(2) Arefusaltocomplywiththerequest;issuingarequestofherhusbandtoanswerthephoneinstead.
⏹(3)Acceptingthewife’srefusalandacceptingherrequest,meaning“allright,I’llanswerit.”
Linguistsaremoreconcernedaboutorinterestedinillocutionaryact.
TheclassificationofillocutionaryactmadebyAmericanphilosopher-linguistJohnSearle.
Searle’sclassificationofspeechacts(1969)
⏹Assertives/representatives(陈述)
⏹Directives(指令)
⏹Commissives(承诺)
⏹Expressives(表达)
⏹Declarations(宣布)
Assertives/representatives
----Statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue,e.g.
⏹Ithinkthefilmismoving.
⏹I’mcertainIhaveneverseenthemanbefore.
⏹Isolemnlyswearthathehadgotit.
…
Directives
----Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething,e.g.
⏹Iorderyoutoleaverightnow.
⏹Openthewindow,please.
⏹Yourmoneyoryourlife!
…
Commissives
----Committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction,e.g.
⏹Ipromisetocome.
⏹Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.
…
Expressives
----Expressingthespeaker’spsychologicalstateaboutsomething,e.g.
⏹I’msorryforbeinglate.
⏹Iapologizeforthesufferingsthatthewarhascausedtoyourpeople.
…
Declarations
----Bringingaboutanimmediatechangeintheexistingstateoraffairs,e.g.
⏹Inowappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.
⏹Youarefired.
⏹Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.
…
⏹Note:
(1)Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposebutdifferintheirstrengthorforce,e.g.
Iguess/amsure/swearheisthemurderer.
⏹Note:
(2)Inordertogetsomeoneopenthedoor,wecanchooseonefromavarietyoftheformsinbelow:
Couldyouopenthedoor,please!
Canyouopenthedoor!
Doyoumindopeningthedoor?
Openthedoor!
Thedoorplease!
Principleofconversation(PaulGrice)
⏹Cooperativeprinciple(CP)----AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,thereisageneralprinciplewhichallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserve.Itgoesasfollows:
⏹Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.
FourmaximsofCP
⏹Themaximofquality
----Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.
----Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.
⏹Themaximofquantity
----Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequiredforthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange.
----Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.
⏹Themaximofrelation
----Berelevant(makeyourcontributionrelevant).
⏹Themaximofmanner
----Avoidobscurityofexpression.
----Avoidambiguity.
----Bebrief.
----Beorderly.
Significance:
itexplainshowitispossibleforthespeakertoconveymorethanisliterarysaid.
CPisnearlyalwaysobserved,whilethesemaximsarenot,whichgivesriseto“Conversationalimplicatures”,i.e.thelanguagebecomesindirect.
Conversationalimplicature
⏹Inrealcommunication,however,speakersdonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Thesemaximscanbeviolatedforvariousreasons.Whenanyofthemaximsisblantantlyviolated,i.e.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation,ourlanguagebecomesindirect,thenconversationalimplicaturearises.
ViolationofMaximofquality
----A:
Wouldyouliketogomoviewithmetonight?
----B:
Thefinalexamisapproaching.I’mafraidIhavetoprepareforit.
----A:
wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?
----B:
I’mafraidI’mnotfeelingsowellt
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