新概念.docx
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新概念.docx
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新概念
Lesson1FindingFossilman
Wecanreadofthingsthathappened5,000yearsagointheNearEast,where
peoplefirstlearnedtowrite.Buttherearesomepartsoftheworldwhereeven
nowpeoplecannotwrite.Theonlywaythattheycanpreservetheirhistoryisto
recountitassagas--legendshandeddownfromonegenerationofstory-tellers
toanother.Theselegendsareusefulbecausetheycantellussomethingabout
migrationsofpeoplewholivedlongago,butnonecouldwritedownwhatthey
did.AnthropologistswonderedwheretheremoteancestorsofthePolynesian
peoplesnowlivinginthePacificIslandscamefrom.Thesagasofthesepeople
explainthatsomeofthemcamefromIndonesiaabout2,000yearsago.
Butthefirstpeoplewhowerelikeourselveslivedsolongagothateventheir
sagas,iftheyhadany,areforgotten.Soarchaeologistshaveneitherhistorynor
legendstohelpthemtofindoutwherethefirst'modernmen'camefrom.
Fortunately,however,ancientmenmadetoolsofstone,especiallyflint,because
thisiseasiertoshapethanotherkinds.Theymayalsohaveusedwood
andskins,butthesehaverottedaway.Stonedoesnotdecay,andsothetoolsof
longagohaveremainedwheneventhebonesofthemenwhomadethemhave
disappearedwithouttrace.
Why,youmaywonder,shouldspidersbeourfriends?
Becausetheydestroyso
manyinsects,andinsectsincludesomeofthegreatestenemiesofthehuman
race.Insectswouldmakeitimpossibleforustoliveintheworld;theywould
devourallourcropsandkillourflocksandherds,ifitwerenotfortheprotection
wegetfrominsect-eatinganimals.Weowealottothebirdsandbeastswhoeat
insectsbutallofthemputtogetherkillonlyafractionofthenumberdestroyed
byspiders.Moreover,unlikesomeoftheotherinsecteaters,spidersneverdo
theleastharmtousorourbelongings.
Spidersarenotinsects,asmanypeoplethink,norevennearlyrelatedtothem.
Onecantellthedifferencealmostataglanceforaspideralwayshaseightlegs
andaninsectnevermorethansix.
Howmanyspidersareengagedinthisworkonourbehalf?
Oneauthorityon
spidersmadeacensusofthespidersinagrassfieldinthesouthofEngland,and
heestimatedthatthereweremorethan2,250,000inoneacre,thatissomething
like6,000,000spidersofdifferentkindsonafootballpitch.Spidersarebusyfor
atleasthalftheyearinkillinginsects.Itisimpossibletomakemorethanthe
wildestguessathowmanytheykill,buttheyarehungrycreatures,notcontent
withonlythreemealsaday.Ithasbeenestimatedthattheweightofalltheinsects
destroyedbyspidersinBritaininoneyearwouldbegreaterthanthetotal
weightofallthehumanbeingsinthecountry.
T.H.GILLESPIESparethatSpiderfromTheListener
Modernalpiniststrytoclimbmountainsbyaroutewhichwillgivethemgood
sport,andthemoredifficultitis,themorehighlyitisregarded.Inthepioneering
days,however,thiswasnotthecaseatall.Theearlyclimberswerelookingfor
theeasiestwaytothetopbecausethesummitwastheprizetheysought,especially
ifithadneverbeenattainedbefore.Itistruethatduringtheirexplorations
theyoftenfaceddifficultiesanddangersofthemostperilousnature,equipped
inamannerwhichwouldmakeamodernclimbershudderatthethought,but
theydidnotgooutoftheirwaytocourtsuchexcitement.Theyhadasingleaim,
asolitarygoal--thetop!
Itishardforustorealizenowadayshowdifficultitwasforthepioneers.Except
foroneortwoplacessuchasZermattandChamonix,whichhadrapidly
becomepopular,Alpinevillagestendedtobeimpoverishedsettlementscutoff
fromcivilizationbythehighmountains.Suchinnsastherewereweregenerally
dirtyandflea-ridden;thefoodsimplylocalcheeseaccompaniedbybreadoften
twelvemonthsold,allwasheddownwithcoarsewine.Oftenavalleyboastedno
innatall,andclimbersfoundshelterwherevertheycould--sometimeswiththe
localpriest(whowasusuallyaspoorashisparishioners),sometimeswithshepherds
orcheesemakers.Invariablythebackgroundwasthesame:
dirtand
poverty,andveryuncomfortable.Formenaccustomedtoeatingseven-course
dinnersandsleepingbetweenfinelinensheetsathome,thechangetotheAlps
musthavebeenveryhardindeed.
IntheSovietUnionseveralcaseshavebeenreportedrecentlyofpeoplewho
canreadanddetectcolourswiththeirfingers,andevenseethroughsoliddoors
andwalls.Onecaseconcernsan'eleven-year-oldschoolgirl,VeraPetrova,who
hasnormalvisionbutwhocanalsoperceivethingswithdifferentpartsofher
skin,andthroughsolidwalls.Thisabilitywasfirstnoticedbyherfather.One
dayshecameintohisofficeandhappenedtoputherhandsonthedoorofa
lockedsafe.Suddenlysheaskedherfatherwhyhekeptsomanyoldnewspapers
lockedawaythere,andevendescribedthewaytheyweredoneupinbundles.
Vera'scurioustalentwasbroughttothenoticeofascientificresearchinstitute
inthetownofUIyanovsk,nearwhereshelives,andinAprilshewasgivena
seriesoftestsbyaspecialcommissionoftheMinistryofHealthoftheRussian
FederalRepublic.Duringthesetestsshewasabletoreadanewspaperthrough
anopaquescreenand,strangerstill,bymovingherelbowoverachild'sgameof
Lottoshewasabletodescribethefiguresandcoloursprintedonit;and,inanother
instance,wearingstockingsandslippers,tomakeoutwithherfootthe
outlinesandcoloursofapicturehiddenunderacarpet.Otherexperiments
showedthatherkneesandshouldershadasimilarsensitivity.Duringallthese
testsVerawasblindfold;and,indeed,exceptwhenblindfoldshelackedthe
abilitytoperceivethingswithherskin.ltwasalsofoundthatalthoughshe
couldperceivethingswithherfingersthisabilityceasedthemomentherhands
werewet.
5
Peoplearealwaystalkingabout'theproblemofyouth'.Ifthereisone--which
Itakeleavetodoubt--thenitisolderpeoplewhocreateit,nottheyoungthemselves.
Letusgetdowntofundamentalsandagreethattheyoungareafterall
humanbeings--peoplejustliketheirelders.Thereisonlyonedifferencebetween
anoldmanandayoungone:
theyoungmanhasagloriousfuturebefore
himandtheoldonehasasplendidfuturebehindhim:
andmaybethatiswhere
therubis.
WhenIwasateenager,IfeltthatIwasjustyounganduncertain--thatIwas
anewboyinahugeschool,andIwouldhavebeenverypleasedtoberegarded
assomethingsointerestingasaproblem.Foronething,beingaproblemgives
youacertainidentity,andthatisoneofthethingstheyoungarebusilyengaged
inseeking.
Ifindyoungpeopleexciting.Theyhaveanairoffreedom,andtheyhavenota
drearycommitmenttomeanambitionsorloveofcomfort.Theyarenotanxious
socialclimbers,andtheyhavenodevotiontomaterialthings.Allthisseemsto
metolinkthemwithlife,andtheoriginsofthings.It'sasiftheywereinsome
sensecosmicbeingsinviolentandlovelycontrastwithussuburbancreatures.
AllthatisinmymindwhenImeetayoungperson.Hemaybeconceited,illmannered,
presumptuousoffatuous,butIdonotturnforprotectiontodreary
clichésaboutrespectforelders--asifmereagewereareasonforrespect.I
acceptthatweareequals,andIwillarguewithhim,asanequal,ifIthinkhe
iswrong.
6
amalwaysamazedwhenIhearpeoplesayingthatsportcreatesgoodwillbetween
thenations,andthatifonlythecommonpeoplesoftheworldcouldmeet
oneanotheratfootballorcricket,theywouldhavenoinclinationtomeeton
thebattlefield.Evenifonedidn'tknowfromconcreteexamples(the1936
OlympicGames,forinstance)thatinternationalsportingcontestsleadtoorgies
ofhatred,onecoulddeduceitfromgeneralprinciples.
Nearlyallthesportspractisednowadaysarecompetitive.Youplaytowin,
andthegamehaslittlemeaningunlessyoudoyourutmosttowin.Onthevillage
green,whereyoupickupsidesandnofeelingoflocalpatriotismisinvolved,it
ispossibletoplaysimplyforthefunandexercise:
butassoonasthequestionof
prestigearises,assoonasyoufeelthatyouandsomelargerunitwillbedisgraced
ifyoulose,themostsavagecombativeinstinctsarearoused.Anyonewho
hasplayedeveninaschoolfootballmatchknowsthis.Attheinternationallevel
sportisfranklymimicwarfare.Butthesignificantthingisnotthebehaviourof
theplayersbuttheattitudeofthespectators:
and,behindthespectators,ofthe
nations.whoworkthemselvesintofuriesovertheseabsurdcontests,andseriously
believe--atanyrateforshortperiods--thatrunning,jumpingandkickingaball
aretestsofnationalvirtue.
7
Notallsoundsmadebyanimalsserveaslanguage,andwehaveonlytoturnto
thatextraordinarydiscoveryofecho-locationinbatstoseeacaseinwhichthe
voiceplaysastrictlyutilitarianrole.
Togetafullappreciationofwhatthismeanswemustturnfirsttosomerecent
humaninventions.Everyoneknowsthatifheshoutsinthevicinityofawallor
amountainside,anechowillcomeback.Thefurtheroffthissolidobstruction
thelongertimewillelapseforthereturnoftheecho.Asoundmadebytapping
onthehullofashipwillbereflectedfromtheseabottom,andbymeasuringthe
timeintervalbetweenthetapsandthereceiptoftheechoesthedepthofthe
seaatthatpointcanbecalculated.Sowasborntheecho-soundingapparatus,
nowingeneraluseinships.Everysolidobjectwillreflectasound,varyingaccording
tothesizeandnatureoftheobject.Ashoaloffishwilldothis.Soitisa
comparativelysimplestepfromlocatingtheseabottom
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