测量中国的农产品出口的食品安全标准的影响外文翻译.docx
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测量中国的农产品出口的食品安全标准的影响外文翻译.docx
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测量中国的农产品出口的食品安全标准的影响外文翻译
外文翻译
原文
MeasuringtheEffectofFoodSafetyStandardsonChina’sAgriculturalExports
MaterialSource:
ReviewofWorldEconomicsAuthor:
ChunlaiChen,JunYang,andChristopherFindlay
1Introduction
Since2002,China’sagriculturaltradehasincreasedrapidly,reachingUS$50.44billionin2005,andasexpectedChinahasdramaticallyincreasedimportsofland-intensiveagriculturalproducts,particularlycereals(mainlywheat),vegetableoilsandvegetableoilseeds(mainlypalmoilandsoybeans),andrawmaterialsfortextiles(mainlycottonandwool).Chinahasalsoincreasedexportsoflabour-intensiveagriculturalproducts,particularlyprocessedagriculturalproducts,butataslowerpace.From2002to2005,theannualgrowthrateofagriculturalimportswas31.53percentwhilethatofagriculturalexportswas11.65percent.Asaresult,in2004and2005agriculturalimportsexceededagriculturalexportsandChinareporteditsfirsttwoconsecutiveyearsofadeficitinagriculturaltradesincethe1990s(Chen2006).
From1992to2005,China’scomparativeadvantagerevealedbythenetexportratio(NER)inagriculturechangedgradually.AsshowninFigure1,China’srevealedcomparativeadvantageinthewholeagriculturalsectordeclined,especiallyafter2002,andsince2004China’sagriculturalsectorasawholehaslostcomparativeadvantageininternationaltrade.Alsosincethe1990s,andespeciallysincetheearly2000s,China’scomparativeadvantagerevealedbyNERinlabour-intensiveagriculturalproductshasbeendecliningdramatically(Chen2006).
Figure1:
China’sRevealedComparativeAdvantageIndices(NER)ofWholeAgriculturalSectorandProductsbyFactorIntensityofProduction
Source:
Chen(2006).
Undoubtedly,thechangesinrevealedcomparativeadvantageinagriculturehavemainlybeentheresultofChina’sfasteconomicgrowth,dramaticstructuralchangesandcontinuedincreaseinpercapitaincome.However,otherfactorscouldalsoaffectChina’srevealedcomparativeadvantageinagriculture.Therevealedcomparativeadvantageindicesarenotonlycreatedbyunderlyingeconomicforcesbutareoftensignificantlyaffectedbygovernmentpolicieswithrespecttointernationaltrade.Thisproblemhasbeenmoreseriousfortradeinagriculturalproducts.Inparticular,thedevelopedcountrieshaveresortedtosanitaryandphytosanitary(SPS)measuresforanimalandplanthealthandtechnicalbarrierstotrade(TBT)toblockandrestrictagriculturalimports,especiallyfromdevelopingcountrieswherefoodsafetyandtechnicalstandardsareoftenlowascomparedtothoseofdevelopedcountries.Thishasseriouslyaffectedthedevelopingcountries’exportsofagriculturalproductsinwhichtheyhaveacomparativeadvantage.
InthecaseofChina,Chinesefarmersandexportershadanticipatedalarge,positiveimpactondomesticproductionandtheexportofagriculturalproductswithaccessiontotheWorldTradeAssociation(WTO),especiallyforlabour-intensiveagriculturalproductssuchasvegetables,fruits,animalproducts,andfishandaquaticproducts.Infact,theseproductshavebeenhardesthitbytheapplicationofSPSstandards.OurquestioniswhetherthishaslimitedthegrowthintheseagriculturalexportsbyChina.
Therefore,thispaperexaminesandmeasurestheimpactoffoodsafetystandardsonChina’sagriculturalexports.Section2presentssomeempirical
evidenceofSPSandTBTmeasuresaffectingChina’sagriculturalexportsinrecentyears.Section3discussesthemethodologyofthestudy.Section4presentsthespecificationofvariablesanddatasources.Section5conductsaneconometricanalysisoftheimpactofSPSandTBTstandardsonChina’sagriculturalexportsforselectedagriculturalproducts.Section6discussestheeffectoffoodsafetystandardsonChina’sagriculturalexportsandcomparestheeffectoffoodsafetystandardsandimporttariffsonChina’sagriculturalexports.Section7concludesthepaperanddiscussessomepolicyimplications.
2EmpiricalEvidenceoftheImpactofSPSandTBTMeasuresonChina’sAgriculturalExports
AccordingtoChinesegovernmentofficialsources,SPSandTBTmeasureshaveresultedinhugedirectlossesforChina’sagriculturalexports.In2001,aboutUS$7billionworthofChineseexportswereaffectedbySPSandTBTmeasures.Inearly2002,theEUbegantobanimportsofChineseanimal-derivedfood,andseafoodandaquaticproducts,resultingina70percentslumpinChina’saquaticproductexportsduringthesecondhalfofthatyear(MOFCOM2005).Also,China’sMinistryofCommerce(MOFCOM)foundthatabout90percentofChina’sexportersoffoodstuffs,domesticproduce,andanimalby-productswereaffectedbyforeigntechnicaltradebarriersandsufferedlossestotallingUS$9billionin2002(ChinaDaily2003).
China’srecentexperiencewithSPSbarriershavebeenmainlywiththeEU,JapanandtheUnitedStates.Thesethreeeconomiesaccountedfor41,30and24percentrespectivelyofChina’stradelossesattributedtoSPSmeasuresin2002(Zhu2003).Inotherexamples,(DongandJensen2004),inNovember2001,300metrictons(mt)ofshrimpshippedfromZhoushanintheZhejiangprovincetotheEUwerediscoveredtocontain0.2partsperbillionofChloramphenicol.Asaresult,theEUsuspendedimportsofChineseproductsofanimaloriginintendedforhumanconsumptionorforuseinanimalfeeds.Affectedproductsincludedrabbitmeat,poultrymeat,andcrustaceanssuchasshrimpandprawns.Later,othercountries,includingHungary,RussiaandJapan,implementedstricterinspectionsofpoultrymeatfromChina.Asaconsequence,exportsofpoultrymeatfromChinadeclinedbyabout33percentin2002comparedwiththepreviousyear.
In2002JapantightenedtheMaximumResidualLimit(MRL)ofthepesticideChlorpyrifosinspinachfrom0.1ppmto0.01ppm.Asaresult,inJuly2002Japan
blockedimportsoffrozenspinachfromChinaafterfindingpesticides.Priortothisban,importfromChinawerearoundUS$30milliontoUS$35million,accountedfor99percentofJapan’sannualimportsof40,000to50,000mtofspinach.Japan’srestrictiononChineseexportsoffrozenspinachlasteduntilFebruary2003.InMay2003,afterdetectinghigher-than-permittedpesticideresidue,JapanagainadvisedimportersnottoimportChinesefrozenspinach,andthisimportbanwasnotlifteduntilJune2004.China’sexportofspinachtoJapandroppeddramatically,fromthehighestlevelofUS$33.89millionin2001,toUS$14.3millionin2002andUS$3.95millionin2003.In2004and2005,China’sexportofspinachtoJapanrecoveredslightly,butitwasstilllowerthanthe1994exportlevel.
Japan,whichisChina’slargestagriculturalproductexportmarket,hasintroducedthePositiveListSystemforAgriculturalChemicalResiduesinFoods(MinistryofHealth,LabourandWelfareofJapan2006),whichtookeffecton29May2006.Agriculturalchemicalsincludepesticides,feedadditivesandveterinarydrugsinatotalof797categories.Thesystemsets53862MRLstandards.AuniformlimitwillbeappliedtoagriculturalchemicalsforwhichMRLsarenotestablished.Theuniformlimitis0.01ppm,whichmeansfor100mtofagriculturalproducts,theagriculturalchemicalresidualscannotexceed1gram.
FromAugust2002toJuly2003,theUnitedStatesFoodandDrugAdministration(U.S.FDA)refusedentryto1,285shipmentsofChinesefoodstuffs.Agriculturalandaquaticproductsaccountedfor630oftheseshipments,ornearlyhalfofallrefusals(DongandJensen2004).Mostrecently,fromJune2005toMay2006,theU.S.FDArefused1,925ChineseshipmentsfromentryintotheUnitedStates,ofwhich945shipmentswereagriculturalproducts,accountingfor49percentofthetotalrefusals(U.S.FDA2006).MostrefusalsresultfromviolationsofSPSmeasures.Excessivepesticideresidues,lowfoodhygiene,unsafeadditives,contamination,andmisuseofveterinarydrugshavebeenmajorissues.
3MethodologyandEconometricModel
WeaimtomeasuretheeffectoffoodsafetystandardsonChina’sexportsoftwogroupsofagriculturalcommodities—vegetables,andfishandaquaticproducts.ThesetwocategoriesofagriculturalproductswereselectedbecausenotonlyaretheyveryimportantinChina’sagriculturalexports,butalsotheyarethemaintargetsofSPSregulations.
Weapplyagravitymodelinwhichtheinteractionbetweentwoareasisa
functionoftheconcentrationofrelevantvariablesinthetwoareas,andofthedistancebetweenthem.Tinbergen(1962)pioneereditsuseinastudyofthelevelsofbilateraltradeflows.Linnemann(1966)elaboratedtheTinbergenmodelandhisresultsimplicitlysuggestedthattherelativedistanceisimportantinthedeterminationoftradelevels.Leamer(1974)usedtheframeworklaidoutinhisearlierworkwithSterntotesttheadequacyoftraditionaltradetheory,alongsidemorerecenttheorywhichstressestheimportanceofscaleeconomies.Someeconomistshavealsousedthegravitymodelinstudiesofregionaltradeblocs,regionaltradebiasandhomecountrytradebias.
ThetheoreticalvalidityofthegravitymodelhasbeenexaminedbyNiedercornandBechdolt(1969)withintheframeworkofutilitytheory.Deardorff(1995)demonstratedthatthemodeliscompatiblewithneo-classicalmodels.Thegravitymodelhasalsobeenderivedinanimperfectcompetition/differentiatedproductframework.AndersonandvanWin-coop(2003)arguedthatestimatedgravityequationsdonothaveatheoreticalfoundationandthattheirestimationsuffersfromomittedvariablesbias.TheyderivedthetheoreticalgravityequationbasedontheCESutilityfunction.Thekeyimplicationofthetheoreticalgravityequationisthattradebetweenregionsdependsonthebilateralbarrierbetween
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- 关 键 词:
- 测量 中国 农产品出口 食品安全 标准 影响 外文 翻译