胡壮麟 chapter 02.docx
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胡壮麟 chapter 02.docx
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胡壮麟chapter02
⏹Ashumanbeingswearecapableofmakingallkindsofsounds,butonlysomeofthesesoundshavebecomeunitsinthelanguagesystem.
⏹Wecananalyzespeechsoundsfromvariousperspectivesandthetwomajorareasofstudyarephoneticsandphonology.
⏹Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.
⏹ArticulatoryPhoneticsisthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.
⏹AcousticPhoneticsisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds.
⏹PerceptualorAuditoryPhoneticsisconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.
⏹Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.
⏹Itaimsto‘discovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur’.
⏹Inphonologywenormallybeginbyanalyzinganindividuallanguage,sayEnglish,inordertodetermineitsphonologicalstructure,i.e.whichsoundunitsareusedandhowtheyareputtogether.
⏹Thenwecomparethepropertiesofsoundsystemsindifferentlanguagesinordertomakehypothesesabouttherulesthatunderlietheuseofsoundsinthem,andultimatelyweaimtodiscovertherulesthatunderliethesoundpatternsofalllanguages.
1.Howspeechsoundsaremade
1.1Speechorgans
Positionofthevocalfolds:
voiceless
Positionofthevocalfolds:
voicing(initial&thewidestaperture)
Positionofthevocalfolds:
glottalstop
1.2TheIPA
⏹In1886,thePhoneticTeachers’AssociationwasinauguratedbyasmallgroupoflanguageteachersinFrancewhohadfoundthepracticeofphoneticsusefulintheirteachingandwishedtopopularizetheirmethods.
⏹ItwaschangedtoitspresenttitleoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation(IPA)in1897.
⏹OneofthefirstactivitiesoftheAssociationwastoproduceajournalinwhichthecontentswereprintedentirelyinphonetictranscription.
⏹TheideaofestablishingaphoneticalphabetwasfirstproposedbytheDanishgrammarianandphoneticianOttoJespersen(1860-1943)in1886,and
⏹thefirstversionoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(theIPAchart)waspublishedinAugust1888.
⏹Itsmainprincipleswerethat
⏹thereshouldbeaseparateletterforeachdistinctivesound,and
⏹thatthesamesymbolshouldbeusedforthatsoundinanylanguageinwhichitappears.
⏹ThealphabetwastoconsistofasmanyRomanalphabetlettersaspossible,usingnewlettersanddiacriticsonlywhenabsolutelynecessary.
⏹Theseprinciplescontinuetobefollowedtoday.
⏹TheInternational
PhoneticAlphabet(Revisedto2005)
2.Consonantsandvowels
⏹Consonantsareproduced‘byaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction’.
⏹Bycontrast,avowelisproducedwithoutsuch‘stricture’sothat‘airescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthornose’.
⏹Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.
⏹Asthereisnoobstructionofairintheproductionofvowels,thedescriptionoftheconsonantsandvowelscannotbedonealongthesamelines.
2.1Consonants
⏹Intheproductionofconsonantsatleasttwoarticulatorsareinvolved.
⏹Forexample,theinitialsoundinbadinvolvesbothlipsanditsfinalsegmentinvolvestheblade(orthetip)ofthetongueandthealveolarridge.
⏹Thecategoriesofconsonant,therefore,areestablishedonthebasisofseveralfactors.
⏹Themannerofarticulationreferstowaysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished:
⏹thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;
⏹theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;or
⏹theymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.
•Stop(orPlosive)
–Oral&Nasal
•Fricative
•(Median)Approximant
•Lateral(Approximant)
•Trill
•TaporFlap
•Affricate
⏹Theplaceofarticulationreferstothepointwhereaconsonantismade.
⏹Practicallyconsonantsmaybeproducedatanyplacebetweenthelipsandthevocalfolds.
⏹ElevenplacesofarticulationaredistinguishedontheIPAchart:
⏹Bilabial
⏹Labiodental
⏹Dental
⏹Alveolar
⏹Postalveolar
⏹Retroflex
⏹Palatal
⏹Velar
⏹Uvular
⏹Pharyngeal
⏹Glottal
2.2Vowels
⏹CardinalVowels,asexhibitedbythevoweldiagramintheIPAchart,areasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.
⏹Theproblematicareaisthattheinitialsoundinhotgiveslittleturbulence,dependingonhowforcefullyitissaid,andinyetandwettheinitialsegmentsareobviouslyvowels.
⏹Togetoutofthisproblem,theusualsolutionistosaythatthesesegmentsareneithervowelsnorconsonantsbutmidwaybetweenthetwocategories.Forthispurpose,theterm‘semi-vowel’isoftenused.
⏹Languagesalsofrequentlymakeuseofadistinctionbetweenvowelswherethequalityremainsconstantthroughoutthearticulationandthosewherethereisanaudiblechangeofquality.
⏹Theformerareknownaspureormonophthongvowelsandthelatter,vowelglides.
⏹Ifasinglemovementofthetongueisinvolved,theglidesarecalleddiphthongs.
⏹
⏹Adoublemovementproducesatriphthong,whichis‘aglidefromonevoweltoanotherandthentoathird,allproducedrapidlyandwithoutinterruption’.
⏹Theyarereallydiphthongsfollowedbytheschwa[ə],foundinEnglishwordslikewire[waɪə]andtower[taʊə].
2.3ThesoundsofEnglish
⏹ReceivedPronunciation(RP)
⏹GeneralAmerican(GA)
⏹Englishconsonants
⏹TheconsonantsofEnglishcanbedescribedinthefollowingmanner:
⏹[p] voicelessbilabialstop
⏹[b] voicedbilabialstop
⏹[s] voicelessalveolarfricative
⏹[z] voicedalveolarfricative
⏹ThedescriptionofEnglishvowelsneedstofulfillfourbasicrequirements:
⏹theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low);
⏹thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back);
⏹thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tensevs.laxorlongvs.short),and
⏹lip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded).
⏹WecannowdescribetheEnglishvowelsinthisway:
⏹[]highfronttenseunroundedvowel
⏹[]highbacklaxroundedvowel
⏹[]midcentrallaxunroundedvowel
⏹[]lowbacklaxroundedvowel
3.Fromphoneticstophonology
⏹Speechisacontinuousprocess,sothevocalorgansdonotmovefromonesoundsegmenttothenextinaseriesofseparatesteps.Rather,soundscontinuallyshowtheinfluenceoftheirneighbors.
⏹Forexample,map,lamb.
3.1Coarticulation
⏹Whensuchsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved,wecalltheprocesscoarticulation.
⏹Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,asinthecaseoflamb,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation.
⏹Ifthesoundshowstheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itisperseverativecoarticulation,asisthecaseofmap.
⏹Thefactthatthevowel[]inlambhassomequalityofthefollowingnasalisaphenomenonwecallnasalization.
⏹Toindicatethatavowelhasbeennasalized,weaddadiacritictothetopofthesymbol[],as[].
⏹[p]isaspiratedinpeakandunaspiratedinspeak.
⏹Thisaspiratedvoicelessbilabialstopisthusindicatedbythediacritich,as[ph],whereastheunaspiratedcounterpartistranscribedas[p].
⏹Whenweuseasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscription,itiscalledabroadtranscription.
⏹Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.
⏹Botharephonetictranscriptionssoweputbothformsinsquarebrackets[].
3.2Phonemes
⏹Phonologyisnotspecificallyconcernedwiththephysicalpropertiesofthespeechproductionsystem.
⏹Phoneticiansareconcernedwithhowsoundsdifferinthewaytheyarepronouncedwhilephonologistsareinterestedinthepatterningofsuchsoundsandtherulesthatunderliesuchvariations.
⏹Crystal:
‘Phonologicalanalysisreliesontheprinciplethatcertainsoundscausechangesinthemeaningofawordorphrase,whereasothersoundsdonot’.
⏹Minimalpairstest
⏹Phonemes
⏹Theword‘phoneme’simplyreferstoa‘unitofexplicitsoundcontrast’:
theexistenceofaminimalpairautomaticallygrantsphonemicstatustothesoundsresponsibleforthecontrasts.
⏹Byselectingonetypeofsoundinsteadofanotherwecandistinguishonewordfromanother.
⏹Languagesdifferintheselectionofcontrastivesounds.
⏹InEnglish,thedistinctionbetweenaspirated[ph]andunaspirated[p]isnotphonemic.
⏹InChinese,however,thedistinctionbetween/p/and/ph/isphonemic.
⏹Byconvention,phonemictranscriptionsareplacedbetweenslantlines(//)whilephonetictranscriptionsareplacedbetweensquarebrackets([]).
⏹Inphoneticterms,phonemictranscriptionsrepresentthe‘broad’transcriptions.
3.3Allophones
⏹[p,ph]aretwodifferentphonesandarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.
⏹Inthiscasetheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheyneveroccurinthesamecontext:
⏹[p]occursafter[s]while[ph]occursinotherplaces.
/p/[p]/ [s]_____
[ph]elsewhere
⏹Thisphenomenonofvariationinthepronunciationofphonemesindifferentpositionsiscalledallophonyorallophonicvariation.
⏹Velarization:
clearlanddarkl
//[]/_____V
[]/V_____
⏹Thinkabouttellandtelling!
⏹Phoneticsimilarity:
theallophonesofaphonememustbearsomephoneticresemblance.
⏹Freevariantsandfreevariation
4.Phonologicalprocesses,phonological
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