1Definations.docx
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1Definations.docx
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1Definations
1.Definitions
BusinessEthics
Businessethicsiscentrallyconcernedwithconduct.Ethicalquestionsareessentiallyquestionsaboutwhetherweoughtoroughtnottoperformcertainkindsofactions;aboutwhetherthoseactionsaregoodorbad,rightorwrong,virtuousorvicious,worthyofpraiseorblame,rewardorpunishment,andsoon.Businessethicscan:
offeraframeworkthatindividualscanusetohelpthemdeterminewhattheybelievetobe‘correct’oracceptablebehaviourwithintheworkplace.Toencourageandfacilitateaprocessofself-reflectionregardingbothpastbehaviour,currentissuesandfutureactions,contributingtoboththedevelopmentoftheindividualandbusinessorganisation.Thepotentialvalueofbusinessethicsisrecognisedandanattemptismadetoinstitutionaliseethics,itcanprovideamechanismfororganisationalchangeanddevelopment
Ethicalelements
Noticeinthecompanymissionstatementsthecombinationofvirtueandprinciple.
NoticeintheApplestatementonSteveJobsthecombinationofvirtueandutilitarianism.
“Everythingthatcanbecounteddoesnotnecessarilycount;everythingthatcountscannotnecessarilybecounted.”AlbertEinstein
InrelationtoDrucker’sviewthatifitcan’tbemeasured,itcan’tbemanaged,wheredoesethicaltheoryleadus?
InrelationtoRoosevelt’sviewonthenecessityofmorality,whatdoethicaltheoriesteachusaboutbusiness?
DefiningCSR
Corporatesocialresponsibilityencompassestheeconomic,legal,ethical,andphilanthropicexpectationsplacedonorganizationsbysocietyatagivenpointintime.TheCSRbecameincreasinglyprominentwithincompany,governmentandcivilsocietywriting.CSRoperateontheassumptionthattheadoptionofCSRpoliciesbybusinessisrationalandprofitableinthelongrunbecausethesepoliciesattractproductdemandandfactorsofproductionsuchaslabourandcapital.Withregardtoproductdemand,CSRcanbeseenasoneelementinlargerbrandingstrategy.ByengaginginCSRprogrammers,marketingthemandauditingthe,CSRcanattractdemandfrommarketsegmentsparticularlyinterestedinsocialissues.Forexample,aMORIpoll(2000)showedthat58%ofEuropeansagreedthat‘industryandcommercedonotpayenoughattentiontotheirresponsibilities’.TheroleofCSRasamarketsignalcanalsobebeeninlabourmarketsaswellasinproductmarkets.Onthelabourdemandside,companiesposttheirvaluesontheemploymentwebpagestoencourageself-sortingofethicalemployees.Onthelaboursupplyside,CSRsignallingisseenbothtoinfluencethedecisiontojointhecompanyandtoaffecthumanresourcepoliciesofemployeesonceinsidethecompany.CSRisinthewiderdevelopmentalcontext.TheCSRappearstosignalanewformco-operationbetweengovernment,businessandcivilsocietyinthepromotionofsocialobjectives.CSRbenefitsbybothextendingregulatorycontrolanddevolvingactualimplementationtobusiness.
Stakeholder
Thestakeholdermodel-itistheorganisation’sstakeholdersthatgrantitslicencetooperate.Stakeholdersinclude:
owners,customers,consumeradvocates,competitors,protestgroups,employees,suppliers,environmentalists,government,localcommunityorganisations,andthemedia.Astakeholderofacorporationisanindividualorgroupwhicheither:
isharmedby,orbenefitsfrom,thecorporation;orwhoserightscanbeviolated,orhavetoberespected,bythecorporation.Problemswithstakeholdertheory:
Thedecision-makingprocessmaybecomelengthyisallcompetingclaimsofstakeholdershavetobeconsidered.Howarebossestobejudgediftheyareaccountabletomanystakeholders?
Ifotherstakeholdersareputbeforeshareholders,thismayreducesharevaluesandmaybringlesswillingnesstoinvest.Thereseemstobenocleardecisionrulewhenattemptingtoadjudicatebetweenrivalclaimsofstakeholders.
Utilitarianism
Accordingtoutilitarianism,anactionismorallyrightifitresultsinthegreatestamountofgoodforthegreatestamountofpeopleaffectedbytheaction.Assessethicsbylookingattheoutcomeofanactionforallparties.Ethicalactsarethosewhichmaximiseutility(usefulness/happiness)andminimisedisutility.Actutilitarianismlookstosingleactionsandbasesthemoraljudgementontheamountofpleasureandtheamountofpainthissingleactioncauses.Ruleutilitarianismlooksatclassesofactionandaskswhethertheunderlyingprinciplesofanactionproducemorepleasurethanpainforsocietyinthelongrun.Difficultyofpredictingoutcomes.Measurementdifficulties-howdoyouquantifyhappiness?
Maybeunjustandabuseindividualrights.
Kantianism
Ethicalactsarethosewhicharecarriedoutforduty’ssake,determinedbyreasonedconsideration.Dutyisdefinedasobediencetothecategoricalimperative(morallaw):
Universality-whatisrightforonepersonmustberightforanyoneelseinthesameposition.Respectforpersons-peopleshouldbetreatedasendsinthemselves,neverasmeanstoendsandUniversallylawgiving–wouldeveryoneagreetoalawbasedonwhatyouhavedone?
Whenrisktakingcrossesthelinebetweentheresponsibleentrepreneurshipwewanttocelebrateandirresponsiblerisktaking,thenwehavetotakeactiontoensurethatmarketsworkinthepublicinteresttoreflectsharedvalues.""Wealthcreationisnotjustaprivilegebutaresponsibility.Andthatiswhywebacktheworkethic;wesupporteffortandenterpriseandresponsiblerisktaking.Thesearethemoralsmarketsneed,"Gordonsaid.Onlyactsdrivenbythecategoricalimperativeareethical–whataboutoutcomes?
Assumptionthatweareallautonomousrationalbeingspreparedtoreasonatthislevel.Howshouldconflictingdutiesberesolved?
Noaccounttakenofpersonalrelationships.Noaccountoftemporalorculturaldifferences.
EthicsofRightsandJustice
Weallpossessmoralrights.Theseareourhumanor‘natural’rights.Negativerights:
life,physicalsecurity,personalfreedom,freespeech,freedomofconscience,consent,privacy,property.Positiverights:
foodanddrink,shelter,work,basiceducation,healthcare,legaladviceandrepresentation,safeenvironment.Justiceorientationsrepresent“theprevailinggroundingformoraljudgments”(FrenchandWeis2000,126)inwesternsocieties.Justiceemphasizesindividualautonomy,choiceandfreedom,ensuredthroughthepreservationofequality,andenactedthroughrulesthatmustbefollowedbyalltoensurefairness.“Thesimultaneouslyfairtreatmentofindividuals…withtheresultthateverybodygetswhattheydeserve”.Basedon:
1.Fairoutcomes,2.Fairprocedures
Virtueethics
Letussupposethat,unliketechnicalorscientificproblems,moralproblemshavenoanswersorsolutionsjustwaitingtobediscovered.Whatiftherewerenosinglerightanswerstomanyofthemoralproblemsconfrontingus?
Besidesdespair,isanyalternativeopentous?
Iwouldliketosuggestthatthereis,andthatwecanbeguidedtothisalternativebyAristotle(DesJardins,1984).Acharacter-basedethicaltheory,“WhatsortofpersonshouldIbe”?
Virtuesarelearnedbyexperience,Aristotelianvirtuesdealtwithleadersonly:
courage,justice,wisdom,temperance,Moderndayvirtues:
friendship,conscientiousness,faithfulness,kindness,cooperativeness,Goodforfosteringethicalorganisations-fosterethicalemployees.JPMorganChase:
Behaviours'andprinciplesthatdescribewhatwestandfor–integrityandrespect–andwhatwedeliver–excellenceandinnovation.Integrity–Strivingatalltimestodowhat’srightandadheretothehighestethicalstandards.Respect–Valuingtheperspectivesandexpertiseofalltosurfacethebestideasandinsights.Excellence–Achievinghigh-qualityresultsbycontinuousimprovementandsuperbexecution.Innovation–Goingbeyondthecommonplacetobreaknewground.CriticismsofVirtueTheory:
Unethicalactscanbeacceptableifdonebyavirtuousindividual.Iseveryonecapableoflearningvirtues?
Doeseveryonewanttobevirtuous?
Difficultyindefiningalistofvirtues,Differentsocietiesmayneedandvaluedifferentvirtues.
CodesofEthics
Codesofethicsarevoluntarystatementsthatcommitorganizations,industries,orprofessionstospecificbeliefs,values,andactionsand/orsetoutappropriateethicalbehaviourforemployees.Fourmaintypesofethicalcodes:
Organizationalorcorporatecodesofethics,Professionalcodesofethics,Industrycodesofethics,Programmeorgroupcodesofethics.Increasinglycommon:
Substantialriseinusageduring1990sand2000s,2/3oflargeUKfirmshavesomekindofformalethicalcodewhilstalmostalllargeUSfirmshaveacodeofethics,LessprevalentinEurope,andinSMEs.Critiquesofethicalcodes:
Clearprescriptionforemployeesmeanslackofflexibility,Difficultywithmultiple/novelsituations,particularlycross-cultural,Vague,generalisedstatementsofobligation,PRdevice,Questionablecontrolmechanismsthatpotentiallyinfluenceemployeebeliefs,valuesandbehaviours,‘suppress’individualmoralinstinctsandemotionsinordertoensurebureaucraticconformityandconsistency.
Stakeholder
Instrumentalperspective:
‘Stakeholderimpactanalysisenablesacompanytoidentifythestakeholdersmostcrucialtoitssurvivalandtomakesurethatthesatisfactionoftheirneedsisparamount’.Threekeyattributeslikelytodetermineperceivedimportanceorsalienceofstakeholders:
Power,Legitimacy,andUrgency.Typesofstakeholderrelationship:
Challenge,Sparringpartners,One-waysupport,Mutualsupport,Endorsement,Projectdialogue,Strategydialogue,Taskforce,Jointventureoralliance.Problemswithstakeholdercollaboration:
Resourceintensity,Cultureclash,Schizophrenia,Uncontrollability,Co-optat
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