雅思泛读及精读材料.docx
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雅思泛读及精读材料.docx
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雅思泛读及精读材料
ClimateandCountryWealth
A.Whyaresomecountriesstupendouslyrichandothershorrendouslypoor?
Socialtheoristshavebeencaptivatedbythisquestionsincethelate18thcentury,whenScottisheconomistAdamSmitharguedinhismagisterialworkTheWealthofNationsthatthebestprescriptionforprosperityisafree-marketeconomyinwhichthegovernmentallowsbusinessessubstantialfreedomtopursue
profits.Smith,however,madeasecondnotablehypothesis:
thatthephysicalgeographyofa
regioncaninfluenceitseconomicperformance.Hecontendedthattheeconomiesofcoastalregions,withtheireasyaccesstoseatrade,usuallyoutperformtheeconomiesofinlandareas.
B.Coastalregionsandthosenearnavigablewaterwaysareindeedfarricherandmoredenselysettledthaninteriorregions,justasSmithpredicted.Moreover,anarea’sclimatecanalsoaffectitseconomicdevelopment.Nationsintropicalclimatezonesgenerallyfacehigherratesofinfectiousdiseaseandloweragriculturalproductivity(especiallyforstaplefoods)thandonationsintemperatezones.Similarburdensapplytothedesertzones.Theverypoorestregionsintheworldarethosesaddledwithbothhandicaps:
distancefromseatradeandatropicalordesertecology,Thebasiclessonsofgeographyareworthrepeating,becausemosteconomistshaveignoredthem.Inthepastdecadethevastmajorityofpapersoneconomicdevelopmenthaveneglectedeventhemostobviousgeographicalrealities.
C.Thebestsingleindicatorofprosperityisgrossnationalproduct(GNP)percapita--thetotalvalueofacountry’seconomicoutput,dividedbyitspopulation.AmapshowingtheworlddistributionofGNPpercapitaimmediatelyrevealsthevastgapbetweenrichandpoornations.Thegreatmajorityofthepoorestcountrieslieinthegeographicaltropics.Incontrast,mostoftherichestcountrieslieinthetemperatezones.Amongthe28economiescategorizedashighincomebytheWorldBank,onlyHongKong,SingaporeandpartofTaiwanareinthetropicalzone,representingamere2percentofthecombinedpopulationofthehigh-incomeregions.Almostallthetemperate-zonecountrieshaveeitherhigh-income,economies(asinthecasesofNorthAmerica,WesternEurope,KoreaandJapan)ormiddle-incomeeconomies(asinthecasesofEasternEurope,theformerSovietUnionandChina).Inaddition,thereisastrongtemperate-tropicaldividewithincountriesthatstraddlebothtypesofclimates.MostofBrazilforexamplelieswithinthetropicalzone,buttherichestpartofthenation--thesouthernmoststates--isinthetemperatezone.
D.Therearetwomajorwaysinwhicharegion’sclimateaffectseconomicdevelopment.First,itaffectstheprevalenceofdisease.Manykindsofinfectiousdiseasesareendemictothetropicalandsubtropicalzones.Thistendstobetrueofdiseasesinwhichthepathogenspendspartofitslifecycleoutsidethehumanhost:
forinstance,malaria(carriedbymosquitoes)andhelminthicinfections(causedbyparasiticworms).AlthoughepidemicsofmalariahaveoccurredsporadicallyasfarnorthasBostoninthepastcentury,thediseasehasnevergainedalastingfootholdinthetemperatezones,becausethecoldwintersnaturallycontrolthemosquito-basedtransmissionofthedisease.Wintercouldthusbeconsideredtheworld’smosteffectivepublichealthintervention,
Itismuchmoredifficulttocontrolmalariaintropicalreasons,wheretransmissiontakesplaceyear-roundandaffectsalargepartofthepopulation.
E.AccordingtotheWorldHealthOrganization,300millionto500millionnewcasesofmalariaoccureveryyear,almostentiretyconcentratedinthetropics.Widespreadillnessandearlydeathsobviouslyholdbackanation’seconomicperformancebysignificantlyreducingworkerproductivity.Buttherearealsolong-termeffectsthatmaybeamplifiedovertimethroughvarioussocialfeedbacks.Ahighincidenceofdiseasecanaltertheagestructureofacountry’spopulation.Societieswithhighlevelsofchildmortalitytendtohavehighlevelsoffertility:
mothersbearmanychildrentoguaranteethatatleastsomewillsurvivetoadulthood.Youngchildrenwillthereforeconstitutealargeproportionofthatcountry’spopulation.Withsomanychildren,poorfamiliescannotinvestmuchineachchild’seducation.Highfertilityalsoconstrainstheroleofwomeninsociety,becausechildreadingtakesupsomuchoftheiradultlives.
F.Moreovertemperatureaffectsagriculturalproductivity.Ofthemajorfoodgrains-wheat,maizeandrice-wheatgrowsonlyintemperateclimates,andmaizeandricecropsaregenerallymore
productiveintemperateandsubtropicalclimatesthanintropicalzones.Onaverage,ahectareoflandinthetropicsyields2.3metrictonsofmaize,whereasahectareinthetemperatezoneyields
6.4tons.Farmingintropicalrainforestenvironmentsishamperedbythefragilityofthesoil:
hightemperaturesmineralizetheorganicmaterials,andtheintenserainfallleachesthemoutofthesoil.
Intropicalenvironmentsthathavewetanddryseasons-suchastheAfricansavanna-farmers
mustcontendwiththerapidlossofsoilmoistureresultingfromhightemperatures,thegreatvariabilityofprecipitation,andtheeverpresentriskofdrought.Moreover,tropicalenvironmentsareplaguedwithdiverseinfestationsofpestsandparasitesthatcandevastatebothcropsandlivestock.
G.Moderateadvantagesordisadvantagesingeographycanleadtobigdifferencesinlong-termeconomicperformance.Favorableagriculturalofhealthconditionsmayboostpercapitaincomeintemperate-zonenationsandhenceincreasethesizeoftheireconomies.Theresultinginventionsfurtherraiseeconomicoutput,spurringyetmoreinventiveactivity.Themoderategeographicaladvantageisthusamplifiedthroughinnovation.Incontrast,thelowfoodoutputperfarmworkerintropicalregionstendstodiminishthesizeofcities.Withasmallerproportionofthepopulationinurbanareas,therateoftechnologicaladvanceisusuallyslower.Thetropicalregionsthereforeremainmoreruralthanthetemperateregions,withmostoftheireconomicactivityconcentratedinlow-technologyagricultureratherthaninhigh-technologymanufacturingandservices.
H.Geographicalfactors,however,areonlypartofthestory.Social,landeconomicinstitutionsarecriticaltolong-termeconomicperformance.ItisparticularlyinstructivetocomparethepostWorldWarIIperformanceofsocialistandfree-marketeconomiesinneighboringcountriesthatsharethesamegeographicalcharacteristics:
NorthandSouthKorea,EastandWestGermany,theCzechRepublicandAustria,andEstoniaandFinland.Ineachcasewefindthatfree-marketinstitutionsvastlyoutperformedtheircounterparts.
I.Ifthesefindingsaretrue,thepolicyimplicationsaresignificant.Aidprogramsfordeveloping
countrieswillhavetoberevampedtospecificallyaddresstheproblemsimposedbyclimateandgeography.Inparticular,newstrategieshavetobeformulatedthatwouldhelpnationsintropicalzonesraisetheiragriculturalproductivityandreducetheprevalenceofdiseasessuchasmalaria.
MedievalToysandChildhood
A.Thistoyknightcomesfromarichharvestofarchaeologicalfinds,madeinthemudbanksoftheRiverThamesinLondonduringtheJest30years.Itwasmanufacturedinabout1300,andillustratesseveralfacetsofmedievalchildhood.Thenasnow,childrenlikedplayingwithtoys.Thenasnow,theyhadacultureoftheirown,encompassingslang,toys,andgames.Thenasnow,adultscoredforchildrenandencouragedtheirplay.Anadultmadethistoyandanotheradultboughtittforachild,orgaveachildmoneytobuyit.Thetoyknightwasmadefromamould,andproducedinlargenumbers.Itprobablycirculatedamongthefamiliesofmerchants,shopkeepers,andcraftworkers,aswellasthoseofthenobilityandgentry,Thefindsalsoincludetoysthatgirlsmighthaveliked:
littlecups,plates,andjugs,somesturdyenoughtoheatupwaterbyafireside,Thereisevenaself-assemblykit:
acupboardcutoutofasheetofsoftmetal,insteadoftheplasticthatwouldbeusedtoday.Toysgiveusapositiveviewofmedievalchildhood.
B.Medievaltoysmightbehome-madebyadultswithtimeontheirhands,fashionedbythechildrenthemselves,orboughtfromwanderingpeddlersormerchantsatfairs–evenorderedspeciallyfromthemostchildrenoncetheirusefulnessasfashionmodelswaspast.Naturally,thetypesandmagnificenceofthetoysvariedwiththestatusoftherecipient.
C.ManyofthedollssoldinEnglandcamefromabroad,chieflyfromGermanyandHolland,althoughveryfancydollsweresoldinthePalaisduJustice,alongsideotherexpensiveluxuries.However,theindustrywasslowtodevelopintoaguild,hamperedpartlybyitsownrules-toyshadtobefinishedbytheappropriatemasters,andthuscouldnotbemadeallinoneworkshop,forinstance.Therewasalsothehindrancethattoymakingwasforalongtimeconsideredanadditiontoa‘real’trade,andtoagreatextentlefttothelocalcraftsmenintheirsparetime,ratherthanquicklybecominganindustryofitsown,aswasthecaseinmanyotherfields.However,dollsamongothertoysappeartohavebeentradedonasmallbutconstantandgraduallyincreasinglevelthroughouttheMiddleAgesandRenaissance.Dockenmacher(‘doll-makers’)arerecordedinNurembergfrom1413,andtheirveryexistenceindicatestherisingimportanceofthetoytradeonboththelocalandtheinternationalscene.
D.Writtensourcesfortheexistenceoftoys,andtosomeextentoftheirtypeandmanufacture,arefair
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