女性主义的英文材料.docx
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女性主义的英文材料.docx
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女性主义的英文材料
Feminism
Feminismisacollectionofmovementsaimedatdefining,establishing,anddefendingequalpolitical,economic,andsocialrightsforwomen.[1][2]Inaddition,feminismseekstoestablishequalopportunitiesforwomenineducationandemployment.Afeministisa"personwhosebeliefsandbehaviorarebasedonfeminism."[3]
Feministtheory,whichemergedfromthesefeministmovements,aimstounderstandthenatureofgenderinequalitybyexaminingwomen'ssocialrolesandlivedexperience;ithasdevelopedtheoriesinavarietyofdisciplinesinordertorespondtoissuessuchasthesocialconstructionofsexandgender.[4][5]Someoftheearlierformsoffeminismhavebeencriticizedfortakingintoaccountonlywhite,middle-class,educatedperspectives.Thisledtothecreationofethnically-specificormulticulturalistformsoffeminism.[6]
Feministactivistscampaignforwomen'srights–suchasincontractlaw,property,andvoting–whilealsopromotingbodilyintegrity,autonomyandreproductiverightsforwomen.Feministcampaignshavechangedsocieties,particularlyintheWest,byachievingwomen'ssuffrage,genderneutralityinEnglish,equalpayforwomen,reproductiverightsforwomen(includingaccesstocontraceptivesandabortion),andtherighttoenterintocontractsandownproperty.[7][8]Feministshaveworkedtoprotectwomenandgirlsfromdomesticviolence,sexualharassment,andsexualassault.[9][10][11]Theyhavealsoadvocatedforworkplacerights,includingmaternityleave,andagainstformsofdiscriminationagainstwomen.[7][8][12]Feminismismainlyfocusedonwomen'sissues,butbecausefeminismseeksgenderequality,somefeministsarguethatmen'sliberationisanecessarypartoffeminism,andthatmenarealsoharmedbysexismandgenderroles.
Contents
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∙1History
o1.1Nineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies
o1.2Mid-twentiethcentury
o1.3Latetwentiethandearlytwenty-firstcenturies
∙2Theory
∙3Movementsandideologies
o3.1Politicalmovements
o3.2Materialistideologies
o3.3Blackandpostcolonialideologies
o3.4Socialconstructionistideologies
o3.5Culturalmovements
∙4Societalimpact
o4.1Civilrights
o4.2Language
o4.3Theology
o4.4Patriarchy
o4.5Menandmasculinity
∙5Culture
o5.1Architecture
o5.2Literature
o5.3Music
o5.4Visualarts
∙6Sexuality
o6.1Sexindustry
▪6.1.1Pornography
▪6.1.2Prostitutionandtrafficking
∙7Relationshiptopoliticalmovements
o7.1Socialism
o7.2Fascism
o7.3Civilrightsmovementandanti-racism
∙8Science
o8.1Biologyandgender
∙9Reactions
o9.1Pro-feminism
o9.2Anti-feminism
∙10Seealso
∙11References
∙12Furtherreading
∙13Externallinks
o13.1Multimediaanddocuments
o13.2Articles
o13.3Listings
o13.4Tools
History
FeministSuffrageParadeinNewYorkCity,May6,1912.
Mainarticle:
Historyoffeminism
Seealso:
Protofeminist
Dependingonhistoricalmoment,cultureandcountry,feministsaroundtheworldhavehaddifferentcausesandgoals.Mostwesternfeministhistoriansassertthatallmovementsthatworktoobtainwomen'srightsshouldbeconsideredfeministmovements,evenwhentheydidnot(ordonot)applythetermtothemselves.[13][14][15][16][17][18]Otherhistoriansassertthatthetermshouldbelimitedtothemodernfeministmovementanditsdescendants.Thosehistoriansusethelabel"protofeminist"todescribeearliermovements.[19]
Thehistoryofthemodernwesternfeministmovementsisdividedintothree"waves".[20][21]Eachwavedealtwithdifferentaspectsofthesamefeministissues.Thefirstwavecomprisedwomen'ssuffragemovementsofthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,promotingwomen'srighttovote.Thesecondwavewasassociatedwiththeideasandactionsofthewomen'sliberationmovementbeginninginthe1960s.Thesecondwavecampaignedforlegalandsocialequalityforwomen.Thethirdwaveisacontinuationof,andareactionto,theperceivedfailuresofsecond-wavefeminism,beginninginthe1990s.[22]
Nineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies
First-wavefeminismwasaperiodofactivityduringthenineteenthcenturyandearlytwentiethcentury.IntheU.K.andUS,itfocusedonthepromotionofequalcontract,marriage,parenting,andpropertyrightsforwomen.Bytheendofthenineteenthcentury,activismfocusedprimarilyongainingpoliticalpower,particularlytherightofwomen'ssuffrage,thoughsomefeministswereactiveincampaigningforwomen'ssexual,reproductive,andeconomicrightsaswell.[23]
LouiseWeissalongwithotherParisiansuffragettesin1935.Thenewspaperheadlinereads"TheFrenchwomanMustVote."
Women'ssuffragewasachievedinBritain'sAustralasiancoloniesatthecloseofthe19thcentury,withtheself-governingcoloniesofNewZealandandSouthAustraliagrantingwomentherighttovotein1893and1895respectively.ItwasfollowedbyAustraliapermittingwomentostandforparliamentaryofficeandgrantingwomentherighttovote.[24][25]
InBritaintheSuffragettesandtheSuffragistscampaignedforthewomen'svote,andin1918theRepresentationofthePeopleActwaspassedgrantingthevotetowomenovertheageof30whoownedhouses.In1928thiswasextendedtoallwomenovertwenty-one.[26]IntheU.S.,notableleadersofthismovementincludedLucretiaMott,ElizabethCadyStanton,andSusanB.Anthony,whoeachcampaignedfortheabolitionofslaverypriortochampioningwomen'srighttovote.ThesewomenwereinfluencedbytheQuakertheologyofspiritualequality,whichassertsthatmenandwomenareequalunderGod.[27]IntheUnitedStates,first-wavefeminismisconsideredtohaveendedwiththepassageoftheNineteenthAmendmenttotheUnitedStatesConstitution(1919),grantingwomentherighttovoteinallstates.Thetermfirstwavewascoinedretroactivelytocategorizethesewesternmovementsafterthetermsecond-wavefeminismbegantobeusedtodescribeanewerfeministmovementthatfocusedasmuchonfightingsocialandculturalinequalitiesaspoliticalinequalities.[23][28][29][30][31]
DuringthelateQingperiodandreformmovementssuchastheHundredDays'Reform,Chinesefeministscalledforwomen'sliberationfromtraditionalrolesandNeo-Confuciangendersegregation.[32][33][34]Later,theChineseCommunistPartycreatedprojectsaimedatintegratingwomenintotheworkforce,andclaimedthattherevolutionhadsuccessfullyachievedwomen'sliberation.[35]
In1899,QasimAmin,consideredthe"father"ofArabfeminism,wroteTheLiberationofWomen,whicharguedforlegalandsocialreformsforwomen.[36]HodaShaarawifoundedtheEgyptianFeministUnionin1923,andbecameitspresidentandasymboloftheArabwomen'srightsmovement.ArabfeminismwascloselyconnectedwithArabnationalism.[37]
TheIranianConstitutionalRevolutionin1905triggeredtheIranianwomen'smovement,whichaimedtoachievewomen'sequalityineducation,marriage,careers,andlegalrights.[38]However,duringtheIranianrevolutionof1979,manyoftherightsthatwomenhadgainedfromthewomen'smovementweresystematicallyabolished,suchastheFamilyProtectionLaw.[39]
InFrance,womenobtainedtherighttovoteonlywiththeProvisionalGovernmentoftheFrenchRepublicof21April1944.[40]TheConsultativeAssemblyofAlgiersof1944proposedon24March1944togranteligibilitytowomenbutfollowinganamendmentbyFernandGrenier,theyweregivenfullcitizenship,includingtherighttovote.[40]Grenier'spropositionwasadopted51to16.[40]InMay1947,followingtheNovember1946elections,thesociologistRobertVerdierminimizedthe"gendergap,"statinginLePopulairethatwomenhadnotvotedinaconsistentway,dividingthemselves,asmen,accordingtosocialclasses.[40]Duringthebabyboomperiod,feminismwanedinimportance.[40]Wars(bothWorldWarIandWorldWarII)hadseentheprovisionalemancipationofsome,individual,women,butpost-warperiodssignaledthereturntoconservativeroles.[40]
Mid-twentiethcentury
FrenchphilosopherSimonedeBeauvoirprovidedaMarxistsolutionandanexistentialistviewonmanyofthequestionsoffeminismwiththepublicationofLeDeuxièmeSexe(TheSecondSex)in1949.[41]Thebookexpressedfeminists'senseofinjustice.Second-wavefeminismisafeministmovementbeginningintheearly1960s[42]andcontinuingtothepresent;assuch,itcoexistswiththird-wavefeminism.Secondwavefeminismislargelyconcernedwithissuesofequalityotherthansuffrage,suchasendingdiscrimination.[23]
Second-wavefeministsseewomen'sculturalandpoliticalinequalitiesasinextricablylinkedandencouragewomentounderstandaspectsoftheirpersonallivesasdeeplypoliticizedandasreflectingsexistpowerstructures.ThefeministactivistandauthorCarolHanischcoinedtheslogan"ThePersonalisPolitical",whichbecamesynonymouswiththesecondwave.[9][43]
Secondandthird-wavefeminisminChinahasbeencharacterizedbyare-examinationofwomen'srolesduringthecommunistrevolutionandotherreformmovements,andnewdiscussionsaboutwhetherwomen'sequalityhasactuallybeenfullyachieved.[35]
In1956,PresidentGamalAbdelNasserofEgyptinitiated"statefeminism",whichoutlaweddiscriminationbasedongenderandgrantedwomen'ssuffrage,butalsoblockedpoliticalactivismbyfeministleaders.[44]DuringSadat'spresidency,hiswife,JehanSadat,publiclyadvocatedforfurtherwomen'srights,thoughEgyptianpolicyandsocietybegantomoveawayfromwomen'sequalitywiththenewIslamistmovementandgrowingconservatism.[45]However,someactivistsproposedanewfeministmovement,Islamicfeminism,whicharguesforwomen'sequalitywithinanIslam
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