英语阅读理解及答案.docx
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英语阅读理解及答案.docx
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英语阅读理解及答案
ArtisansinSixteenth-CenturyEurope
ForcenturiesEuropeanartisanshadoperatedinsmall,autonomoushandicraftbusinesses,butbythesixteenthcenturyanevolvingeconomicsystem—movingtowardmoderncapitalism,withitsfree-marketpricing,neworganizationofproduction,investments,andsoon—hadstartedtoerodetheirstableandrelativelyprosperousposition.Whatforcescontributedtothedeclineoftheartisan?
Inafewindustriesthereappearedtechnologicalinnovationsthatcostmoretoinstallandoperatethanartisans—evenassociationsofartisans—couldafford.Forexample,inironproduction,suchspecializedequipmentasblastfurnaces,tilthammers,wire-drawingmachines,andstamping,rolling,andslittingmillsbecamemorefamiliarcomponentsoftheindustry.Thustheneedforfixedcapital(equipmentandbuildingsusedinproduction)soared.Besidestheseitems,expensiveintheirownright,facilitiesforwater,storage,anddeliverieswereneeded.Inaddition,pig(raw)ironturnedoutbyblastfurnacescouldnotbeforgeduntilrefinedfurtherinanewintermediatestage.Inlatesixteenth-centuryAntwerp,whereaskilledworkerearned125to250guildersayear,alargeblastfurnacealonecost3,000guilders,andotherindustrialequipmentwasequallyormoreexpensive.
Rawmaterials,notequipment,constitutedartisans’majorexpenseinmosttrades,however.Whereasin1583anAntwerpsilkweaverpaid12guildersforaloom(andmadesmallpaymentsovermanyyearstopayoffthedebtforpurchasingtheloom),everysixweeksheorshehadtolayout24guildersforthe2poundsofrawsilkrequiredtomakeapieceofcloth.Thusaccesstocheapandplentifulprimarymaterialswasaconstantpreoccupationforindependentproducers.Usinglocalmaterialsmightalloweventhepoorestamongthemtoavoidrelianceonmerchantsuppliers.Thelossofnearbysourcescouldthereforebedevastating.AssilkcultivationwanedaroundtheSpanishcitiesofCordobaandToledo,weaversinthesecitieswereforcedtobecomeemployeesofmerchantswhoputoutrawsilkfromValenciaandMurciaprovinces.IntheDutchRepublic,merchantswhoimportedunprocessedsaltfromFrance,Portugal,andSpaingainedcontrolofthesalt-refiningindustryonceexploitationoflocalsaltmarsheswashaltedforfearthatdikes(whichheldbacktheseafromthelow-lyingDutchland)wouldbeundermined.
Creditwasnecessaryforproductionbutcreatedadditionalvulnerabilitiesforartisans.Pricesforindustrialproductslaggedbehindthoseofrawmaterialsandfoodstuffs,andthis,coupledwithrisingtaxes,madeitdifficultformanyproducerstorepaytheircreditors.Periodicdownturns,whenfoodpricesshotupanddemandformanufacturesfelloff,drovethemfurtherintodebtorevenintobankruptcy,fromwhichtheymightemergeonlybyagreeingtoselltheirproductsexclusivelytomerchantsorfellowartisanswhoextendedthemloans.Frequentenoughduringperiodsofgrowth,suchcreditcrisesbecamedeeperandlastedlongerafterabout1570,asdidwar-relateddisruptionsofraw-materialsuppliesandmarkets.
Artisans’autonomywasimperiled,too,byrestrictionsontheiraccesstomarkets.Duringthesixteenthcentury,asituationlikethisoftenresultedfromtheconcentrationofexporttradeinafewgreatstorageanddistributioncenters.ThedisappearanceofregionalmarketswhereweaversinFlanders(whatisnownorthernBelgium)hadpreviouslyboughtflaxandsoldlinenleftthematthemercyofbig-citymiddlemen,whoquicklyturnedthemintodomesticworkers.Inasimilarfashion,formerlyindependentproducersinsouthernWiltshireinEngland,whohadboughtyarnfromspinnersorlocalbrokersandsoldtheirclothtomerchantsinnearbySalisbury,becamesubjecttoLondonmerchantswhomonopolizedbothwoolsuppliesandwoolensexports.
Withgoodreason,finally,urbanartisansfearedthegrowthofindustriesinthecountryside.Foronething,theyworriedthatthespreadofvillagecraftswouldreducetheirsupplyofrawmaterials,drivingupprices.Cityproducersalsoknewthatrurallocationsenjoyedlowerlivingcosts,wages,andtaxes,andoftenemployedfewerorsimplifiedprocesses.Theseadvantagesbecameamajorpreoccupationascompetitionintensifiedinthe1570sand1580s.
Paragraph1
ForcenturiesEuropeanartisanshadoperatedinsmall,autonomoushandicraftbusinesses,butbythesixteenthcenturyanevolvingeconomicsystem—movingtowardmoderncapitalism,withitsfree-marketpricing,neworganizationofproduction,investments,andsoon—hadstartedtoerodetheirstableandrelativelyprosperousposition.Whatforcescontributedtothedeclineoftheartisan?
1.Whichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformationinthehighlightedsentenceinthepassage?
Incorrectchoiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformation.
A.Inthesixteenthcentury,theEuropeaneconomymovedtowardasystemoffree-marketpricing,newwaysofproduction,andinvestments.
B.Beforethesixteenthcentury,Europeanmakersofhandicraftsenjoyedstability,autonomy,andrelativeprosperity.
C.Bythesixteenthcentury,theriseofcapitalismbegantoweakentheautonomyandrelativeprosperityofEuropeanartisans.
D.Europeanartisansoperatedsmall,autonomousbusinessesbeforemoderncapitalismemergedinthesixteenthcentury.
Paragraph2
Inafewindustriesthereappearedtechnologicalinnovationsthatcostmoretoinstallandoperatethanartisans—evenassociationsofartisans—couldafford.Forexample,inironproduction,suchspecializedequipmentasblastfurnaces,tilthammers,wire-drawingmachines,andstamping,rolling,andslittingmillsbecamemorefamiliarcomponentsoftheindustry.Thustheneedforfixedcapital(equipmentandbuildingsusedinproduction)soared.Besidestheseitems,expensiveintheirownright,facilitiesforwater,storage,anddeliverieswereneeded.Inaddition,pig(raw)ironturnedoutbyblastfurnacescouldnotbeforgeduntilrefinedfurtherinanewintermediatestage.Inlatesixteenth-centuryAntwerp,whereaskilledworkerearned125to250guildersayear,alargeblastfurnacealonecost3,000guilders,andotherindustrialequipmentwasequallyormoreexpensive.
2.Theword“Besides”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningto
A.Inadditionto
B.Moreimportantthan
C.Differentfrom
D.Togetherwith
3.Accordingtoparagraph2,howdidtechnologicaladvancecontributetotheeconomicdeclineofartisans?
A.Artisanshadnoplacetostoreorusethenewmachines.
B.Goodsproducedbythenewtechnologywerecheaperthanthoseproducedbyartisans.
C.Thefixedcostsofremaininginbusinessbecameveryhigh.
D.Artisansdidnotknowhowtousethenewmachines.
Paragraph3
Rawmaterials,notequipment,constitutedartisans’majorexpenseinmosttrades,however.Whereasin1583anAntwerpsilkweaverpaid12guildersforaloom(andmadesmallpaymentsovermanyyearstopayoffthedebtforpurchasingtheloom),everysixweeksheorshehadtolayout24guildersforthe2poundsofrawsilkrequiredtomakeapieceofcloth.Thusaccesstocheapandplentifulprimarymaterialswasaconstantpreoccupationforindependentproducers.Usinglocalmaterialsmightalloweventhepoorestamongthemtoavoidrelianceonmerchantsuppliers.Thelossofnearbysourcescouldthereforebedevastating.AssilkcultivationwanedaroundtheSpanishcitiesofCordobaandToledo,weaversinthesecitieswereforcedtobecomeemployeesofmerchantswhoputoutrawsilkfromValenciaandMurciaprovinces.IntheDutchRepublic,merchantswhoimportedunprocessedsaltfromFrance,Portugal,andSpaingainedcontrolofthesalt-refiningindustryonceexploitationoflocalsaltmarsheswashaltedforfearthatdikes(whichheldbacktheseafromthelow-lyingDutchland)wouldbeundermined.
4.Theword“preoccupation”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningto
A.necessity
B.concern
C.struggle
D.uncertainty
5.Inparagraph3,whydoestheauthorprovidetheinformationaboutanAntwerpsilkweaver’scostsin1583?
A.Todescribesometypicalcostsinthesilk-weavingindustry
B.Tosupportthestatementthatartisans’mainexpensewasmaterials,notequipment
C.Toargueagainsttheviewthatartisansdidnothavetoborrowmoneytobuyequipment
D.Toshowthatmaterialswerecheapandplentifulformostartisans
6.Whatcanbeinferredfromparagraph3aboutlocalmaterials?
A.Theywereofhigherqualitythanimportedmaterials.
B.Theywereusuallymoreplentifulthanimportedmaterials.
C.Theyremainedavailableevenaftermerchantsbegantocontroltheindustries.
D.Theytendedtobemoreaffordablethanmaterialssuppliedbymerchants.
7.Accordingtoparagraph3,whichofthefollowingwassometimesaneffectonartisansofthelossoflocalsourcesoftheirprimarymaterials?
A.Theyhadtoselltheirproductstomerchants.
B.Theyneededtotakeloansinordertobuythematerialsfrommerchants.
C.Theycouldnolongeraffordtobeindependentproducers.
D.Theyimportedthematerialsfromdistantsources.
Paragraph4
Creditwasnecessaryforproductionbutcreatedadditionalvulnerabilitiesforartisans.Pricesforindustrialproductslaggedbehindthoseofrawmaterialsandfoodstuffs,andthis,coupledwithrisingtaxes,madeitdifficultformanyproducerstorepaytheircreditors.Periodicdownturns,whenfoodpricesshotupanddemandformanufacturesfelloff,drovethemfurtherintodebtorevenintobankruptcy,fromwhichtheymightemergeonlybyagreeingtoselltheirproductsexclusivelytomerchantsorfellowartisanswhoextendedthemloans.Frequentenoughduringperiodsofgrowth,suchcreditcrisesbecamedeeperandlastedlongerafterabout1570,asdidwar-re
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