细胞的基本特性.docx
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细胞的基本特性.docx
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细胞的基本特性
BASICPROPERTIESOFCELLS
Justasplantsandanimalsarealive,sotooarecells.Life,infact,isthemostbasicpropertyofcells,andcellsarethesmallestunitstoexhibitthisproperty.Unlikethepartsofacell,whichsimplydeteriorateifisolated,wholecellscanberemovedfromaplantoranimalandculturedinalaboratorywheretheywillgrowandreproduceforextendedperiodsoftime.Ifmistreated,theymaydie.
Deathcanalsobeconsideredoneofthemostbasicpropertiesoflife,becauseonlyalivingentityfacesthisprospect.Remarkably,cellswithinthebodygenerallydie“bytheirownhand”—thevictimsofaninternalprogramthatcausescellsthatarenolongerneededorcellsthatposeariskofbecomingcanceroustoeliminatethemselves.
ThefirstcultureofhumancellswasbegunbyGeorgeandMarthaGeyofJohnsHopkinsUniversityin1951.ThecellswereobtainedfromamalignanttumorandnamedHeLacellsafterthedonor,HenriettaLacks.HeLacells—descendedbycelldivisionfromthisfirstcellsample—arestillbeinggrowninlaboratoriesaroundtheworldtoday.Becausetheyaresomuchsimplertostudythancellssituatedwithinthebody,cellsgrowninvitro(i.e.,inculture,outsidethebody)havebecomeanessentialtoolofcellandmolecularbiologists.Infact,muchoftheinformationthatwillbediscussedinthisbookhasbeenobtainedusingcellsgrowninlaboratorycultures.
Wewillbeginourexplorationofcellsbyexaminingafewoftheirmostfundamentalproperties.
CellsAreHighlyComplexandOrganized
Complexityisapropertythatisevidentwhenencountered,butdifficulttodescribe.Forthepresent,wecanthinkofcomplexityintermsoforderandconsistency.
Themorecomplexastructure,thegreaterthenumberofpartsthatmustbeintheirproperplace,thelesstoleranceoferrorsinthenatureandinteractionsoftheparts,andthemoreregulationorcontrolthatmustbeexertedtomaintainthesystem.
Cellularactivitiescanberemarkablyprecise.DNAduplication,forexample,occurswithanerrorrateoflessthanonemistakeeverytenmillionnucleotidesincorporated—andmostofthesearequicklycorrectedbyanelaboraterepairmechanismthatrecognizesthedefect.
Duringthecourseofthisbook,wewillhaveoccasiontoconsiderthecomplexityoflifeatseveraldifferentlevels.Wewilldiscusstheorganizationofatomsintosmall-sizedmolecules;theorganizationofthesemoleculesintogiantpolymers;andtheorganizationofdifferenttypesofpolymericmoleculesintocomplexes,whichinturnareorganizedintosubcellularorganellesandfinallyintocells.Aswillbeapparent,thereisagreatdealofconsistencyateverylevel.
Eachtypeofcellhasaconsistentappearancewhenviewedunderahigh-poweredelectronmicroscope;thatis,itsorganelleshaveaparticularshapeandlocation,fromoneindividualofaspeciestoanother.Similarly,eachtypeoforganellehasaconsistentcompositionofmacromolecules,whicharearrangedinapredictablepattern.
Considerthecellsliningyourintestinethatareresponsibleforremovingnutrientsfromyourdigestivetract.
Theepithelialcellsthatlinetheintestinearetightlyconnectedtoeachotherlikebricksinawall.Theapicalendsofthesecells,whichfacetheintestinalchannel,havelongprocesses(microvilli)thatfacilitateabsorptionofnutrients.Themicrovilliareabletoprojectoutwardfromtheapicalcellsurfacebecausetheycontainaninternalskeletonmadeoffilaments,whichinturnarecomposedofprotein(actin)monomerspolymerizedinacharacteristicarray.Attheirbasalends,intestinalcellshavelargenumbersofmitochondriathatprovidetheenergyrequiredtofuelvariousmembranetransportprocesses.Eachmitochondrioniscomposedofadefinedpatternofinternalmembranes,whichinturnarecomposedofaconsistentarrayofproteins,includinganelectricallypoweredATP-synthesizingmachinethatprojectsfromtheinnermembranelikeaballonastick.
Fortunatelyforcellandmolecularbiologists,evolutionhasmovedratherslowlyatthelevelsofbiologicalorganizasigtionwithwhichtheyareconcerned.Whereasahumanandacat,forexample,haveverydifferentanatomicalfeatures,thecellsthatmakeuptheirtissues,andtheorganellesthatmakeuptheircells,areverysimilar.TheactinfilamentportrayedinFigure1.3,Inset3,andtheATP-synthesizingenzymeofInset6arevirtuallyidenticaltosimilarstructuresfoundinsuchdiverseorganismsashumans,snails,yeast,andredwoodtrees.Informationobtainedbystudyingcellsfromonetypeoforganismoftenhasdirectapplicationtootherformsoflife.Manyofthemostbasicprocesses,suchasthesynthesisofproteins,theconservationofchemicalenergy,ortheconstructionofamembrane,areremarkablysimilarinalllivingorganisms.
CellsPossessaGeneticProgramandtheMeanstoUseIt
Organismsarebuiltaccordingtoinformationencodedinacollectionofgenes.Thehumangeneticprogramcontainsenoughinformation,ifconvertedtowords,tofillmillionsofpagesoftext.Remarkably,thisvastamountofinformationispackagedintoasetofchromosomesthatoccupiesthespaceofacellnucleus—hundredsoftimessmallerthanthedotonthisi.
Genesaremorethanstoragelockersforinformation:
theyconstitutetheblueprintsforconstructingcellularstructures,thedirectionsforrunningcellularactivities,andtheprogramformakingmoreofthemselves.Themolecularstructureofgenesallowsforchangesingeneticinformation(mutations)thatleadtovariationamongindividuals,whichformsthebasisofbiologicalevolution.Discoveringthemechanismsbywhichcellsusetheirgeneticinformationhasbeenoneofthegreatestachievementsofscienceinrecentdecades.
CellsAreCapableofProducingMoreofThemselves
Justasindividualorganismsaregeneratedbyreproduction,sotooareindividualcells.Cellsreproducebydivision,aprocessinwhichthecontentsofa“mother”cellaredistributedintotwo“daughter”cells.Priortodivision,thegeneticmaterialisfaithfullyduplicated,andeachdaughtercellreceivesacompleteandequalshareofgeneticinformation.Inmostcases,thetwodaughtercellshaveapproximatelyequalvolume.Insomecases,however,asoccurswhenahumanoocyteundergoesdivision,oneofthecellscanretainnearlyallofthecytoplasm,eventhoughitreceivesonlyhalfofthegeneticmaterial
CellsAcquireandUtilizeEnergy
Everybiologicalprocessrequirestheinputofenergy.VirtuallyalloftheenergyutilizedbylifeontheEarth’ssurfacearrivesintheformofelectromagneticradiationfromthesun.Theenergyoflightistrappedbylight-absorbingpigmentspresentinthemembranesofphotosyntheticcells.
Lightenergyisconvertedbyphotosynthesisintochemicalenergythatisstoredinenergy-richcarbohydrates,suchassucroseorstarch.Formostanimalcells,energyarrivesprepackaged,of-tenintheformofthesugarglucose.Inhumans,glucoseisreleasedbytheliverintothebloodwhereitcirculatesthroughthebodydeliveringchemicalenergytoallthecells.Onceinacell,theglucoseisdisassembledinsuchawaythatitsenergycontentcanbestoredinareadilyavailableform(usuallyasATP)thatislaterputtouseinrunningallofthecell’smyriadenergy-requiringactivities.Cellsexpendanenormousamountofenergysimplybreakingdownandrebuildingthemacromoleculesandorganellesofwhichtheyaremade.Thiscontinual“turnover,”asitiscalled,maintainstheintegrityofcellcomponentsinthefaceofinevitablewearandtearandenablesthecelltorespondrapidlytochangingconditions.
CellsCarryOutaVarietyofChemicalReactions
Cellsfunctionlikeminiaturizedchemicalplants.Eventhesimplestbacterialcelliscapableofhundredsofdifferentchemicaltransformations,noneofwhichoccursatanysignificantrateintheinanimateworld.Virtuallyallchemicalchangesthattakeplaceincellsrequireenzymes—moleculesthatgreatlyincreasetherateatwhichachemicalreactionoccurs.Thesumtotalofthechemicalreactionsinacellrepresentsthatcell’smetabolism.
CellsEngageinMechanicalActivities
Cellsaresitesofbustlingactivity.Materialsaretransportedfromplacetoplace,structuresareassembledandthenrapidlydisassembled,and,inmanycases,theentirecellmovesitselffromonesitetoanother.Thesetypesofactivitiesarebasedondynamic,mechanicalchangeswithincells,manyofwhichareinitiatedbychangesintheshapeof“motor”proteins.Motorproteinsarejustoneofmanytypesofmolecular“machines”employedbycellstocarryoutmechanicalactivities.
CellsAreAbletoRespondtoStimuli
Somecellsrespondtostimuliinobviousways;asingle-celledprotist,forexample,movesawayfromanobjectinitspathormovestowardasourceofnutrients.Cellswithinamulticellularplantoranimalrespondtostimulilessobviously.Mostcellsarecoveredwithreceptorsthatinteractwithsubstancesintheenvironmentinhighlyspecificways.Cellspossessreceptorstohormones,growthfactors,andextracellularmaterials,aswellastosubstancesonthesurfacesofothercells.Acell’sreceptorsprovidepathwaysthroughwhichexternalagentscanevokespecificresponsesintargetcells.Cellsmayrespondtospecificstimulibyalteringtheirmetabolicactivities,movingfromoneplacetoanother,orevencommittingsuicide.
CellsAreCapableofSelf-Regulation
Inadditiontorequiringenergy,maintainingacomplex,orderedstaterequiresconstantregulation.Theimportanceofacell’sregulatorymechanismsbecomesmostevidentwhentheybreakdown.Forexample,failureofacelltocorrectamistakewhenitduplicatesitsDNAmayresultina
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