英语必修ⅳ译林牛津版unit1wordpower教案.docx
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英语必修ⅳ译林牛津版unit1wordpower教案.docx
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英语必修ⅳ译林牛津版unit1wordpower教案
●Wordpower
We’lllearninthissectionsomecommonsuffixesthatcanbeaddedtonounsorverbstocreateadjectives.Andalsosomevocabularyrelatedtosalesandmarketing.
Step1:
Brainstorming
1.Pleasethinkaboutthefollowingquestions:
Howarethefollowingwordsformed?
health(noun)healthy(adjective)interest(verb)interesting(adjective)
AnEnglishwordcanhaveseveralderivatives.AndpleasepayattentiontothefactthatmanyEnglishwordssharethesamerootword,eventhoughtheyhavedifferentmeaningsorpartsofspeech.
Nowhere’smoreexampleforyoutobetterunderstandwordformation.
breath(n.)breathe(v.)breathless(adj.)
act(v.)action(n.)actor(n.)actress(n.)activity(n.)
possible(adj.)impossible(adj.)possibility(n.)possibly(adv.)
friend(n.),friendly(adj.),friendless(adj.),friendship(n.),unfriendly(adj.)
Asyoucansee,manywordsarederivedbyaddingsuffixesorprefixestotherootwords.Oftenyoumaycomeacrossunfamiliarwordswhilereading,trytouseknowledgeofwordformationtoguesstheirmeanings.Willyou?
Andcanyougivemoreexamplesaboutwordformation?
2.Shallwehaveacompetitiontoseewhocangivemoreexamplesorcreatemorewordsbyaddingsuffixesorprefixestotherootwords?
3.Asweknow,sometimesanEnglishwordcanbemadeupofthreeparts:
aprefix,astemandasuffix.Astemisthemainpartofaword.Aprefixisagroupoflettersaddedtothebeginningofaword.Asuffixisagroupoflettersplacedattheendofaword.Bothprefixesandsuffixesmodifythemeaningofawordorchangeitintoadifferentwordgroup.Thefollowingisatableofcommonprefixes:
Prefix
Meaning
Examples(adjectives)
un-
Not
unfair,unnecessary,unimportant,unhappy
in-
Not
incorrect,invisible,incurable,inaccurate
dis-
showingopposite
disable,dishonest,disagree,disappear,discover
re-
doagain
rewrite,redo,rebuild,react,retell,recreate
mis-
badlyorwrongly
misunderstand,misdirect,mistake,misuse
Step2:
LearningaboutWordformation
Thebasicpartofanywordistheroot;toit,youcanaddaprefixatthebeginningand/orasuffixattheendtochangethemeaning.Forexample,intheword"unflattering,"therootissimply"flatter,"whiletheprefix"un-"makesthewordnegative,andthesuffix"-ing"changesitfromaverbintoanadjective(specifically,aparticiple).
Englishitselfdoesnotuseprefixesasheavilyasitoncedid,butmanyEnglishwordscomefromLatin,whichusesprefixesandsuffixes(youcanusethewordaffixtorefereithertoaprefixorasuffix)quiteextensively.Forexample,thewords"prefix,""suffix,"and"affix"themselvesareallformedfrom"fix"bytheuseofprefixes:
∙"ad"(to)+"fix"(attached)="affix"
∙"pre"(before)+"fix"="prefix"
∙"sub"(under)+"fix"="suffix"
Notethatboththe"-d"of"ad"andthe"-b"of"sub"changethelastletter.
HerearesomeofthemostcommonLatinprefixes(forthemeaningsoftheLatinroots,lookupthewordsinagooddictionary):
ab(away)abrupt,absent,absolve
ad(to)adverb,advertisement,afflict
in(not)incapable,indecisive,intolerable
inter(between,among)intercept,interdependent,interprovincial
intra(within)intramural,intrapersonal,intraprovincial
pre(before)prefabricate,prefaceprefer
post(after)postpone,postscript,postwar
sub(under)submarine,subscription,suspect
trans(across)transfer,transit,translate
Step3:
ReadyusedmaterialsforWordformation
Affixes
Morphemesaddedtofreeformstomakeotherfreeformsarecalledaffixes.Therearethreeprinciplekindsofaffixes:
1.prefixes(atbeginning)—"un-"in"unable"
2.suffixes(atend)—"-ed"in"walked"
3.circumfixes(atbothends)—"en--en"in"enlighten"
(Thesealwaysseemtoconsistofotherwiseattestedindependentprefixesandsuffixes.)
ARuleforFormingsomeEnglishWords
ConsiderthefollowingpairsofEnglishwords:
Adjective
Verb
dark
darken
black
blacken
red
redden
steep
steepen
Whatgeneralization(rule)canwemake?
∙Form:
"en"
∙Combination:
AttheendofAdjectives(suffix)tomakeVerbs
∙Meaning:
"tomake(more)Adjective"
Wecandrawadiagramtoshowtheinternalstructureofoneofthewords:
Verb
/\
Adjective-en
|
black
Meaning:
"tomake(more)black"
Likewisewecandrawapartialstructure(treediagram)whichshowsthethreepropertiesofruleofcombinationfortheaffix:
Verb
/\
Adjective-en
Meaning:
"tomake(more)Adjective"
AnotherRuleforFormingsomeEnglishWords
ConsiderthefollowingpairsofEnglishwords:
Verb
Noun
sing
singer
dance
dancer
write
writer
compute
computer
Whatgeneralization(rule)canwemake?
Add"-er"totheendofVerbstomakeNounswiththemeaning"someone(orsth.)thatVerbs"
Noun
/\
Verb-er
Meaning:
"someone(orsomething)thatVerbs"
Rulesthatdon'tchangecategory
Someaffixescreatethesamekindsofwordsthattheyattachto,suchasmakingnounsoutofothernouns:
Noun
/\
Noun-ian
|
Boston
Meaning:
"someonefromBoston"
ZeroMorphemes
Someaffixesconsistofnosoundsatall.ZeromorphemesDOexist,andwe'llseewhy,andillustrateanotherconcept,allomorphyatthesametime.
Considerthefollowingwords:
AdjectiveVerb
yellowyellow
brownbrown
greengreen
purplepurple
Therelationbetween"yellow"(adjective)and"yellow"(verb)isexactlythesameasthatbetween"white"and"whiten",whichwejustconsidered.Buttheformof"yellow"doesn'tchange.Sowesaythatweaddedazerosuffix:
Verb
/\
Adjective-Ø
|
yellow
Meaning:
"tomake(more)yellow"
Zeromorphemesareobviouslyhardtospotbecauseyoucan'thearthem!
InthesecasesyouhavetonoticewhatISN'Tthere.(SherlockHolmessolvesoneofhiscasesbynoticingthatadogDIDN'Tbark.Thiswasimportantbecausetherewasasituationwhereanydogwouldhavebarked.Thisisthekindofthinkingyouhavetodotofindzeromorphemes.)
Allomorphy
ButnowwehavetwowaystomakeAdjectivesintoVerbsmeaning"tomake(more)Adjective":
"-en"("black-en")and"-Ø"("yellow-Ø")Howdoweknowwhichruletouse?
Thatis,whynot"yellow-en"?
Onepossible(butuninteresting)answeristhatwejusthavetomemorizewhichaffixtouseforeachstem.Thatis,wejustmemorizethat"black"takes"-en"and"yellow"takes"-Ø".Butwewouldlikeabetterexplanation.
Aswiththephonologyproblems,thebestplacetolookis"near"wheretheaffixattaches.Since"-en"isasuffix,let'slookattheendofthestems.WhatwefindisthatwecandividetheAdjectivesintotwoclassesbasedonwhatthelastSOUND(NOTletter)ofthestemis:
∙Use"-en"ifthelastsoundis:
[p]"deep-en"[f]"stiff-en"[v]"live-en"[t]"white-en"
[d]"redd-en"[s]"less-en"[ʃ]"fresh-en"[k]"dark-en"
∙Use"-Ø"ifthelastsoundis:
[e]"gray-Ø"("Hishairgrayed(gray-Ø-ed)beforehewastwenty.")
[n]"brown-Ø"[m]"dim-Ø"[l]"purple-Ø"[r]"clear-Ø"
Wecanusethesametypeofdiagrams,andindicatetheconditions:
Verb
/\
Adjective-enifAdjectiveendsinanobstruent(oralstoporfricative)
-ØifAdjectiveendsinasonorant(nasals,approximants,vowels)
Meaning:
"tomake(more)Adjective"
Whenwedidphonologyproblems,wehadanotionof"default"or"elsewhere".Thesameconceptcanariseinmorphology,althoughinthiscasethechoiceismadedifficultbythecleancutbetweenobstruentsandsonorants.Itistrue,however,thatthereareexceptionstothisrulewithcertainunusualadjectives:
Verb
/\
Adjective-enifAdjectiveendsinanobstruent(oralstoporfricative)
-ØElsewhere
Meaning:
"tomake(more)Adjective"
AnotherexampleofallomorphyinEnglishisthechoiceofthenegativeprefix"il-/ir-/im-/in-".Therulesare:
∙Use"il-"whenthestembeginswith"l":
"il-legal"
∙Use"ir-"whenthestembeginswith"r":
"ir-responsible"
∙Use"im-"whenthestembeginswith"m,b,p":
"im-mobile""im-balanced","im-possible"
∙Otherwise(elsewhere)use"in-":
"in-active",etc.
Inadiagram:
Adjective
/\
whenAdjectivebeginswithl:
il-Adjective
whenAdjectivebeginswithr:
ir-
whenAdjectivebeginswithabilabial:
im-
Elsewhere:
in-
Meaning:
"notAdjective"
Noticeherethatthereisaclearcasethatapplieswhentheother(morespecific)rulescannot.ThisistheDEFAULTorELSEWHERErule.TheELSEWHEREconceptplaysanimportantroleinlinguisticsandwehavealreadyencountereditinphonologyandwewillencounteritagaininthiscourse.
Finally,someallomorphyissimplyexceptional.Therearemorphemeswhichareusedwithonlyalimitednumberofwords,suchasplural"-en"asin"ox-en","child-(r)en".
Furthermore,somewordsaresoirregularthattheyhavenointernalanalysis,forexample"went"istheSUPPLETIVEformforwhatwouldotherwisebe"go-ed".Childrenoftenusewordslike"go-ed"("went")or"hold-ed"("held").ThesearecalledOVERGENERALIZATIONerrorsbecausethechildrenusearegularproductiveprocessonexceptionalwords.
Compounds
ThecombinationoftwofreeformsiscalledaCOMPOUND.
Noun
/\
AdjectiveNoun
||
blackbird
Meaning:
aparticularkindofbird
InEnglishtheHEADofacompoundisusuallytheright-handmember(bird).
Theheadsuppliesthecategory(Noun)andbasicmeaning(bird-ness)forthewholecompound.
Compoundscanbeusedwithaffixationtoproducelargerwords:
Noun
/\
Verb-er
/\
VerbVerb
||
sleepwalk
Meaning:
Someonewhowalksandsleepsatthesametime
Noun
/\
NounNoun
|/\
windowVerb-er
|
painter
Meaning:
Someonewhopaintswindows
BoundRoots
Bo
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