简明语言学整理笔记.docx

简明语言学整理笔记.docx

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简明语言学整理笔记

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第一章

1.linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage

2．Thescopeoflinguistics

Phonetics-语音学phonology-音系学morphology-形态学syntax-句法学semantics-语义学

pragmatics-语用学

从语言形式划分：

Sociolinguistics社会语言学，psycholinguistics心理语言学，appliedlinguistics应用语言学

3.Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics

Descriptive&>prescriptive规定性&描写性

Synchronic&>diachronic共时性&历时性

Speech&>writing口语&书写

Langue&

Competence&

（SaussureandChomskythinkrule>languagefact）

Traditionalgrammer&modernlinguistics

4.Whatislanguage?

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication

5.Designfeaturesoflanguage语言的识别特征CharlesHockett

①Arbitrariness（任意性）referstotheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheir

meaning.（soundsandmeanings）

②Productivity/creativity（能产性）:

Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossiblethe

constructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers

③Duality（双重性）:

Thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsofthe

primarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasits

ownprinciplesoforganization..

④Displacement（移位性）:

HumanLanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsand

conceptswhicharenotpresent（intimeandspace）atmomentofcommunication.

⑤Culturaltransmission（文化传承性）人独有。

动物为基因传承

6.Functionsoflanguage

Mainfunction：

Descreptivefunction描述功能，expressivefunction表达功能，socialfunction社会功能

6basicfunction（RomanJakobson）

①addresser-Emotive（情感功能）:

toexpressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker

②addressee-Conative（意动功能）

③Context-referential（指称功能）

④.message-poetic（诗性功能）.

⑤contact-Phaticcommunion（寒暄交流）

⑥Metalingualfunction（元语言功能）:

Halliday–childlanguage：

theideational概念功能，theinterpersonal交际功能，thetextual语篇功能

第二章Phology语音学

Threebranches：

articulatoryphonetics发音语言学，auditoryphonetics听觉语音学，acoustic

phonetics声学语音学。

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Organsofspeech：

pharyngealcavity咽腔:

voiced浊辅音，voiceless清辅音

oralcavity口腔，

nasalcavity鼻腔。

Broad&narrowtranscription

classificationofenglishspeechsound：

phonology音系学名词解释

Phonetics语音学isofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhuman

languages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:

howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeach

other,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified

Phonology音系学aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatterns,andhow

thesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.

Aphone音素----aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduring

linguisticcommunicationareallphones.

Aphoneme音位----isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,nota

particularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.the

phoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyinpeakandspeak.

Allophones音位变体----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphonetic

environments.（complementarydistribution互补分布）

e.g.thephoneme[l]inEnglishcanberealizedasdark[l],clear[l],whichareallophonesofthe

phoneme[l].

Phonemiccontrast音位对立----twodifferentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,

e.g./b/and/p/in[bIt]and[pIt].

Complementarydistribution互补分布----allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementary

distribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.

dark[l]&clear[l],aspirated[p]&unaspirated[p].

Minimalpair最小对立体---whentwodifferentformsareidentical（thesame）ineveryway

exceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosound

combinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.

Somerulesinphonelogy

Sequentialrules序列规则

Assimilationrule同化规则

Deletionrule省略规则

Suprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征

stress，tone，intonation

第三章Morphology（形态学）:

refertothepartofthegrammarthatisconcernedwithformation

andwordstructure.

Closedclasswords:

conjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronounsconsistofthe“grammatical”

or“functional”words.

Words---thesmallestfreeformfoundinlanguage.

Morpheme---thesmallestunitoflanguagethatcarriesinformationaboutmeaningorfunction.

Phoneme音位:

thesmallestmeaningfulunitofsound:

/p,b/

Morpheme词素:

thesmallestmeaningfulunitingrammar:

-s,a-,-lessun-

Freemorpheme自由词素----isonethatmayconstituteaword（freeform）byitself

Boundmorpheme黏着词素----isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycan

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notstandbythemselves

Allomorph词素变体---morphemesmayhavedifferentforms.（:

aandan.）Thevariantformsofa

morphemearesaidtobetheallomorphsofthemorpheme

Root---thecoreofthewordsthatcarriesthemajorcomponentsofmeaning.

Affix---boundmorphemes.

Prefix----morphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothers

Suffix----morphemesthatoccuronlyafterothers

Root---Arootisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixes（inflectional&derivational）are

removed

Stem---Astemispartofaword-formwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeen

removed,

Base---Abaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Thismeansanystemand

rootcanbetermedasabase.

Derivationalmorphemes派生词素----themorphemeswhichcanchangethecategory,or

grammaticalclassofwords

Inflectionalmorphemes屈折词素----theboundmorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurely

grammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon,（tables,talked,

John's）

morphologicalrules---thewayswordsareformed.

能产性词法规则productivemorphologicalrulesDerivation（派生法）---anaffixationprocessthatformsawordwithameaningand/orcategory

fromthatofitsbases.

Compounds（合成法）

第四章Syntax（句法）----

therulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.

Category（范畴）---referstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctions

inaparticularlanguage

syntacticcategories---Afundamentalfactaboutwordsinhumanlanguagesisthattheycanbe

groupedintoarelativesmallnumber.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyarethe

word-levelcategories（traditionally,partsofspeech）

Majorlexicalcategories主要词法范畴:

n.,v.,adj.,Prep.

MinorLexicalcategories次要词法范畴:

det.（a,the,）,deg.（修饰介词，形容词so,very）,Qual.（修饰动词often，almost）,Aux（must,should）,Conj.（and,but,or）

Threecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined:

meaning,inflectionanddistribution.

Phrase---thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategory.

Thestructureofphrases:

specifier标志语+head中心词+complement补语

Head----thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformed

Specifier----thewordsontheleftsideoftheheads

Complement----thewordsontherightsideoftheheads

Aphrasestructurerule短语结构规则----Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthe

arrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphrase

1）TheXPruleXP规则

（specifier）X（complement）

2）Coordinationrule并列规则---thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelements

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ofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunction.

XP→（Spec）（Mod）X（Complement*）（Mod）Modifiers修饰语

S?

NPVP

Inflisanabstractcategoryinflection（dubbed‘Infl'）astheirheads,whichindicatesthesentence's

tense（时态）andagreement（一致）.（Infl.--will,Pst）.

Auxiliarymovement（inversion）---Atransformation,aspecialtypeofrulethatcanmovean

elementfromonepositiontoanother,whichisknownasinversion倒置.

TheauxililarymovesfromtheheadInflpositioninInflPintotheheadCpositioninCP.Such

typeofinversionoperationinvolvingthemovementofawordfromtheheadpositioninone

phraseintotheheadpositioninanotherisknownasheadmovement中心词移位.

Doinsertion（do插入）----InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.

第五章semantics语义学

Semantics----thestudyoflanguagemeaning.

Whatismeaning?

Meaningiscentraltothestudyofcommunication.

Someviews：

Namingtheory（Plato）

---Wordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.

Theconceptualistview（OgdenandRichards:

semantictriangle）

Thesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements（wordsandphrases）;Thereferentreferstothe

objectintheworldofexperience;Thoughtorreferencereferstoconcept.

Contextualism（JRFirth）

1.Situationalcontext场景语境:

spatiotemporal时空的situation2.Linguisticcontext:

co-text互文，theprobabilityofaword'sco-occurrenceorcollocation.

Behaviorism（Bloomfield）

Lexicalmeaning：

名词解释

Sense----isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofall

thefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaning

dictionarycompilersareinterestedin.

Reference----whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththe

relationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.

Majorsenserelations

1）Synonymy同义关系：

Dialectalsynonyms方言同义词，Stylisticsynonyms-文体同义词，differintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning:

thesamemeaningbutdifferentemotions:

，

Collocationalsynonyms搭配同义词，Semanticallydifferentsynonyms,语义程度不同

2）Polysemy一词多义

3）Homonymy同形同音异义关系

4）Hyponymy上下位关系

等级反义词，old-young：

GradableantonymsComplementary

义关系）5Antonymy反互补反义词，关系反义词wife-husbandmale-femaleantonymsRelationalopposites

Senserelationsbetweensentences

同义1）XissynonymouswithY不一致XisinconsistentwithY2）

蕴含XentailsY3）

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预设4）XpresupposesY

矛盾5）Xisacontradiction语义反常6）Xissemanticallyanomalous

Analysisofmeaning

Componential