trust.docx
- 文档编号:26545323
- 上传时间:2023-06-20
- 格式:DOCX
- 页数:18
- 大小:35.74KB
trust.docx
《trust.docx》由会员分享,可在线阅读,更多相关《trust.docx(18页珍藏版)》请在冰豆网上搜索。
trust
weseethatitdescribesanethicalworldinwhichpeoplearebornnotwithrightsbutwithadutiestoaseriesofhierarchically-arrangedauthorities,beginningwiththefamilyandextendingallthewayuptothestateandemperor.Inthisworld,thereisnoconceptoftheindividualandindividualrights;dutiesarenotderivedfromrightsastheyareinWesternliberalthought.Whilethereisaconceptofreciprocalobligationbetweenrulerandruled,thereisnoabsolutegroundingofgovernmentresponsibilityineitherthepopularwillorintheneedtorespectandprotectanindividual'ssphereofautonomy.
ApartfromConfucianism,Asia'sreligionsdonotgiveparticularsupporttoWesterndemocraticprinciples.FolkreligionslikeTaoismandShintoareanimistandpantheistic.WesternerssometimesforgettheimportanceofthetranscendentmonotheismoftheJudaeo-Christiantraditiontotheirpoliticalandsociallives.Theideathatthereisaneternalrealmofdivinelawsuperiortoallpositivelawgivestheindividualwithaccesstothathigherlawpotentialgroundsforrevoltagainstallformsofsecularauthority.Itpromotesbothindividualismandtheconceptofuniversalism.TheuniversalismisthegroundnotonlyfortheWesternconceptofhumanrightsthataretransferablefromoneculturetoanother;itisalsothebasisforabstractionintheobservationofnatureandhumanbehaviorthatisatthebasisforboththenaturalandsocialsciences.
Ontheotherhand,thereareanumberofkeyvaluescharacteristicofmanyAsiansocieties,which,whilehavingseparaterootsfromtheirWesterncounterparts,arequitesupportivebothofamoderneconomyandofdemocraticpolitics.(Eveniftheyweresupportiveonlyofeconomicmodernization,theywouldstillbeconducivetodemocracybecauseofthelinkbetweendevelopmentanddemocracy).AsianreligionsandethicalsystemsareremarkablytolerantinawaythatmonotheistictraditionslikeJudaism,Christianity,andIslamhistoricallyhavenotbeen.Confucianism,withitsexamsystemthatopensupprospectsforsocialmobility,canbehighlymeritocratic.Itisahighlyrationalethicalsystemanddoesnothavetheobscurantisttendenciesof,say,orthodoxShiism.TheConfucianemphasisoneducationiswelladaptedtotheneedsofamoderntechnologicaleconomy,andtheConfucianfamilysystemprovidesacertainprotectedsphereofprivatelifethatisrelativelyfreeofstateintrusion.
BEATINGADEADHORSE
SincefewpeopleseemtobeinterestedinmakingthecaseforAsiavaluesasthebasisfordistinctivepoliticaloreconomicinstitutionstoday,criticizingtheconceptmayseemabitlikebeatingadeadhorse.Forthesakeofclarity,however,itisimportanttolayouttheweaknessesoftheoriginalargumentasameansofdistillingfromitthoseelementsthatmightremainvalid.
ThefirstandprobablymostimportantproblemwiththeAsianvaluesconceptwas,asanyonewhohastraveledthroughAsiaknows,thatAsiaisaverydiverseplace,andthatvaluesvaryconsiderablyfromcountrytocountry.6LeeKwanYewsometimessuggestedthatAsianvaluesweretantamounttoConfucianvalues,butthenitisnotclearwhytheyshouldapplytotheMalaypopulationsofMalaysiaorIndonesia.Confucianismis,moreover,interpretedverydifferentlyinJapan,Korea,andChina.MahathirarguedthatAsiansvaluefamilymorethanWesterners.ButkinshiptiesvaryinimportancethroughoutAsia:
theyplayaminimalroleinJapanandaveryimportantoneinsouthernChina.Largelineagesexistinthelatterregion,butnotinnorthernChinaorinotherpartsofNortheastAsia.ItisnotevenpossibletoarguethatAsianfamiliesaremorestablethantheirWesterncounterparts:
duringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury,divorceratesinpeninsularMalayawerewellover50percent;incontrasttomostWesterncountries,theydecreasedwitheconomicmodernizationandcrossedoverWesternratessometimeonlyinthe1970s.7
ThesecondweaknessoftheoriginalAsianvaluesargument,whichissharedbymanyculturalexplanationsofbehavior,liesinthefactthatvaluesalmostneverhaveadirectimpactonbehavior;theymustbemediatedthroughavarietyofinstitutionstomakethemselvesmanifest.AsianculturalvaluesexistedinsomethingliketheirpresentformlongbeforeAsiansocietiesbegantheirperiodsofexplosiveeconomicgrowth.Thecausesforthatgrowtharemuchmorelikelytobefoundintheinstitutionsthatwerecreatedinthemeantime,likestablegovernments,systemsofpropertyrightsandcommerciallaw,aswellasbythemacro-andsometimesmicroeconomicpoliciescarriedoutbythosegovernments.Valuesandculturestillplayimportantrolesinexplainingagivensociety'sabilitytobuildandoperateinstitutionsandpolicies:
weretheUnitedStates,nottomentionBrazilorMexico,totrytocreatetheequivalentofJapan'sMinistryofInternationalTradeandIndustry(MITI)withinitsownborders,Isuspecttheresultwouldbemuchlesssuccessful.Buttojumpimmediatelytothelevelofculturetoexplainoutcomeswithoutlookingatinstitutionsasanintermediatestepisatypicalmistakemadebyproponentsofculturalinterpretations.
Withregardtopoliticalinstitutions,itisnotatallclearthatAsianvalues,howeverinterpreted,constituteanykindofinsuperablebartomoderndemocracy.Thereisacorrelationbetweendemocracyanddevelopment;foravarietyoffunctionreasonswealthiersocietiestendtoexpandpoliticalparticipation.SincetheoriginalelaborationofthecorrelationbyLipsetin19988,ithasbeenanalyzedintensivelyusingdatafromtheThirdWavedemocraciesformedinthe1980-1990period.Withsomeexceptions,thecorrelationcontinuestoholdupratherwell.AdamPrzeworksihasconcludedthatthereisnotasinglehistoricalcaseofareversalofademocracyinacountrythathadreachedalevelof$6000percapitain1992paritypurchasingpowerterms.9
Ifwepresumethatmodernizationcreatesconditionsneithernecessarynorsufficientbutnonethelessveryhelpfultotheestablishmentofstabledemocracy,theburdenofproofthenfallsonthosewhoarguethatAsianvaluesaresoexceptionalastounderminetherelationship.10ButtheempiricalrecordinAsiaisrelativelysupportiveofthedemocracy/developmentcorrelation:
thefirstthreeAsiancountriestoindustrialize,Japan,SouthKorea,andTaiwan,nowhavefunctioningdemocracies.Whiletwoofthehighestpercapitaincomeentities,SingaporeandHongKong,arenotdemocratic,tendstodisconfirmthecorrelation(aswellasthefactthatthePhilippineshasbeenademocracywhileremainingoneoftheregion'spoorercountries),thoughtheseanomaliescanbeexplainedbyotherfactors.
Ifwefocusoneconomicinstitutions,itisclearthatthereweresomethatwereuniquetotheregion,andthatthesewereoneswhichprobablycouldnotbecreatedinotherculturalsettings.Theseincludedtheso-calledJapanesedevelopmentmodelinwhichatechnocraticeliteoverseassectoraltransitionsthroughcontrolovercredit;Japan'ssystemoflifetimeemploymentamonglargecorporationsandtheirkeiretsunetworks;thechaebolinKorea;andthefamily-basednetworksofoverseasChinesebusinessesinsouthernChinaandSoutheastAsia.Whilemanyoftheseinstitutionsareclearlydysfunctionaltoday,itisverydifficulttoknowinretrospectthedegreetowhichtheyeithercontributedtoorconstraineddevelopmentduringAsia'shigh-growthperiod.ThemostbasicexplanationforAsianeconomicdevelopmentliesinconventionalfactorslikeinputsofcapitalandlabor,combinedwithpoliticalstabilityandreasonablygoodgovernment.ButasthereactiontoPaulKrugman'sextremeversionofthisargumentindicates,thisviewisnotentirelysatisfactory.11ManyuniquelyAsianinstitutionsviolatedpreceptsofWesternneo-classicaleconomicsbyinterferingwithmarketmechanisms;evenso,theiroperationcoincidedwithlevelsofeconomicgrowththathadnoprecedentintheprioreconomichistoryoftheWest.Theleastonecansaythisthat
(1)theywerenotasharmfultoeconomicgrowthasmanyWesterneconomistsassertedinpriordecades,butthat
(2)manyhaveclearlybecomeobstaclestogrowthnow.
Takingaccount,then,ofboththediversityofAsianvaluesandtheimportanceofinstitutions,theoriginalAsianvaluesargumentbeginsdecomposingveryquickly.Thestate-centricJapanesedevelopmentmodelwasneverreallyimplementedinSoutheastAsia,manyofwhosesocietiespossessedlessstableandcapablegovernments.There,problemstendedtobemoreonesofunder-institutionalization,suchasinthecaseofThailand,whosefinancialproblemshadmuchtodowithaninadequatesystemofbankingregulation.JapanandKoreaneedtodismantlecertainoftheirstateinstitutionsandde-regulate;ThailandandIndonesianeedtobuildupmanyoftheirstatecapabilitiesandimplementmoremodernregulatorysystems.Ineithercase,thecentralquestionsconcerninstitutionaldesignandnotculture.Thelattermayhaveaneffectinpromotingorconstrainingthepoliticalconditionsforinstitutionalchange,butisotherwisenotrelevantonlyasmediatedthroughinstitutions.
TOWHATEXTENTWEREASIANVALUESRESPONSIBLEFORTHEASIANCRISIS?
JustasexplanationsforAsiangrowthlieintherealmofconventionaleconomicsratherthanculture,sotoodoexplanationsforAsia'scurrentcrisis.Itwouldseemprimafacieimpossibleforaculturalfactor,whichchangesveryslowly,toaccountforarapidandunexpecteddevelopmentlikethelossofforeigncurrencyreservesorthesuddenbuildupofshort-termcredit.
Thereis,however,oneculturalthemethathasrunthroughcurrentanalysesofthecrisis,whichisthetendencyofmanyWeste
- 配套讲稿:
如PPT文件的首页显示word图标,表示该PPT已包含配套word讲稿。双击word图标可打开word文档。
- 特殊限制:
部分文档作品中含有的国旗、国徽等图片,仅作为作品整体效果示例展示,禁止商用。设计者仅对作品中独创性部分享有著作权。
- 关 键 词:
- trust
![提示](https://static.bdocx.com/images/bang_tan.gif)