The End of History.docx
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The End of History.docx
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TheEndofHistory
TheEndofHistory?
*
FrancisFukuyama**
INWATCHINGtheflowofeventsoverthepastdecadeorso,itishardtoavoidthefeelingthatsomethingveryfundamentalhashappenedinworldhistory.ThepastyearhasseenafloodofarticlescommemoratingtheendoftheColdWar,andthefactthat"peace"seemstobebreakingoutinmanyregionsoftheworld.Mostoftheseanalyseslackanylargerconceptualframeworkfordistinguishingbetweenwhatisessentialandwhatiscontingentoraccidentalinworldhistory,andarepredictablysuperficial.IfMr.GorbachevwereoustedfromtheKremlinoranewAyatollahproclaimedthemillenniumfromadesolateMiddleEasterncapital,thesesamecommentatorswouldscrambletoannouncetherebirthofaneweraofconflict.
Andyet,allofthesepeoplesensedimlythatthereissomelargerprocessatwork,aprocessthatgivescoherenceandordertothedailyheadlines.Thetwentiethcenturysawthedevelopedworlddescendintoaparoxysmofideologicalviolence,asliberalismcontendedfirstwiththeremnantsofabsolutism,thenbolshevismandfascism,andfinallyanupdatedMarxismthatthreatenedtoleadtotheultimateapocalypseofnuclearwar.Butthecenturythatbeganfullofself-confidenceintheultimatetriumphofWesternliberaldemocracyseemsatitsclosetobereturningfullcircletowhereitstarted:
nottoan"endofideology"oraconvergencebetweencapitalismandsocialism,asearlierpredicted,buttoanunabashedvictoryofeconomicandpoliticalliberalism.
ThetriumphoftheWest,oftheWesternidea,isevidentfirstofallinthetotalexhaustionofviablesystematicalternativestoWesternliberalism.Inthepastdecade,therehavebeenunmistakablechangesintheintellectualclimateoftheworld'stwolargestcommunistcountries,andthebeginningsofsignificantreformmovementsinboth.ButthisphenomenonextendsbeyondhighpoliticsanditcanbeseenalsointheineluctablespreadofconsumeristWesterncultureinsuchdiversecontextsasthepeasants'marketsandcolortelevisionsetsnowomnipresentthroughoutChina,thecooperativerestaurantsandclothingstoresopenedinthepastyearinMoscow,theBeethovenpipedintoJapanesedepartmentstores,andtherockmusicenjoyedalikeinPrague,Rangoon,andTehran.
WhatwemaybewitnessingisnotjusttheendoftheColdWar,orthepassingofaparticularperiodofpostwarhistory,buttheendofhistoryassuch:
thatis,theendpointofmankind'sideologicalevolutionandtheuniversalizationofWesternliberaldemocracyasthefinalformofhumangovernment.ThisisnottosaythattherewillnolongerbeeventstofillthepagesofForeignAffair'syearlysummariesofinternationalrelations,forthevictoryofliberalismhasoccurredprimarilyintherealmofideasorconsciousnessandisasyetincompletein.therealormaterialworld.Buttherearepowerfulreasonsforbelievingthatitistheidealthatwillgovernthematerialworldinthelongrun.Tounderstandhowthisisso,wemustfirstconsidersometheoreticalissuesconcerningthenatureofhistoricalchange.
I
THENOTIONoftheendofhistoryisnotanoriginalone.ItsbestknownpropagatorwasKarlMarx,whobelievedthatthedirectionofhistoricaldevelopmentwasapurposefulonedeterminedbytheinterplayofmaterialforces,andwouldcometoanendonlywiththeachievementofacommunistutopiathatwouldfinallyresolveallpriorcontradictions.Buttheconceptofhistoryasadialecticalprocesswithabeginning,amiddle,andanendwasborrowedbyMarxfromhisgreatGermanpredecessor,GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegel.
Forbetterorworse,muchofHegel'shistoricismhasbecomepartofourcontemporaryintellectualbaggage.Thenotionthatmankindhasprogressedthroughaseriesofprimitivestagesofconsciousnessonhispathtothepresent,andthatthesestagescorrespondedtoconcreteformsofsocialorganization,suchastribal,slave-owning,theocratic,andfinallydemocratic-egalitariansocieties,hasbecomeinseparablefromthemodernunderstandingofman.Hegelwasthefirstphilosophertospeakthelanguageofmodernsocialscience,insofarasmanforhimwastheproductofhisconcretehistoricalandsocialenvironmentandnot,asearliernaturalrighttheoristswouldhaveit,acollectionofmoreorlessfixed"natural"attributes.Themasteryandtransformationofman'snaturalenvironmentthroughtheapplicationofscienceandtechnologywasoriginallynotaMarxistconcept,butaHegelianone.Unlikelaterhistoricistswhosehistoricalrelativismdegeneratedintorelativismtoutcourt,however,Hegelbelievedthathistoryculminatedinanabsolutemoment-amomentinwhichafinal,rationalformofsocietyandstatebecamevictorious.
ItisHegel'smisfortunetobeknownnowprimarilyasMarx'sprecursor;anditisourmisfortunethatfewofusarefamiliarwithHegel'sworkfromdirectstudy,butonlyasithasbeenfilteredthroughthedistortinglensofMarxism.InFrance,however,therehasbeenanefforttosaveHegelfromhisMarxistinterpretersandtoresurrecthimasthephilosopherwhomostcorrectlyspeakstoourtime.AmongthosemodernFrenchinterpretersofHegel,thegreatestwascertainlyAlexandreKojève,abrilliantRussianémigréwhotaughtahighlyinfluentialseriesofseminarsinParisinthe1930sattheEcolePractiquedesHautesEtudes.[1]WhilelargelyunknownintheUnitedStates,Kojèvehadamajorimpactontheintellectuallifeofthecontinent.AmonghisstudentsrangedsuchfutureluminariesasJean-PaulSartreontheLeftandRaymondAronontheRight;postwarexistentialismborrowedmanyofitsbasiccategoriesfromHegelviaKojève.
KojèvesoughttoresurrecttheHegelofthePhenomenologyofMind,theHegelwhoproclaimedhistorytobeatanendin1806.ForasearlyasthisHegelsawinNapoleon'sdefeatofthePrussianmonarchyattheBattleofJenathevictoryoftheidealsoftheFrenchRevolution,andtheimminentuniversalizationofthestateincorporatingtheprinciplesoflibertyandequality.Kojève,farfromrejectingHegelinlightoftheturbulenteventsofthenextcenturyandahalf,insistedthatthelatterhadbeenessentiallycorrect.[2]TheBattleofJenamarkedtheendofhistorybecauseitwasatthatpointthatthevanguardofhumanity(atermquitefamiliartoMarxists)actualizedtheprinciplesoftheFrenchRevolution.Whiletherewasconsiderableworktobedoneafter1806-abolishingslaveryandtheslavetrade,extendingthefranchisetoworkers,women,blacks,andotherracialminorities,etc.-thebasicprinciplesoftheliberaldemocraticstatecouldnotbeimprovedupon.Thetwoworldwarsinthiscenturyandtheirattendantrevolutionsandupheavalssimplyhadtheeffectofextendingthoseprinciplesspatially,suchthatthevariousprovincesofhumancivilizationwerebroughtuptothelevelofitsmostadvancedoutposts,andofforcingthosesocietiesinEuropeandNorthAmericaatthevanguardofcivilizationtoimplementtheirliberalismmorefully.
Thestatethatemergesattheendofhistoryisliberalinsofarasitrecognizesandprotectsthroughasystemoflawman'suniversalrighttofreedom,anddemocraticinsofarasitexistsonlywiththeconsentofthegoverned.ForKojève,thisso-called"universalhomogenousstate"foundreal-lifeembodimentinthecountriesofpostwarWesternEurope-preciselythoseflabby,prosperous,self-satisfied,inward-looking,weak-willedstateswhosegrandestprojectwasnothingmoreheroicthanthecreationoftheCommonMarket.[3]Butthiswasonlytobeexpected.Forhumanhistoryandtheconflictthatcharacterizeditwasbasedontheexistenceof"contradictions":
primitiveman'squestformutualrecognition,thedialecticofthemasterandslave,thetransformationandmasteryofnature,thestrugglefortheuniversalrecognitionofrights,andthedichotomybetweenproletarianandcapitalist.Butintheuniversalhomogenousstate,allpriorcontradictionsareresolvedandallhumanneedsaresatisfied.Thereisnostruggleorconflictover"large"issues,andconsequentlynoneedforgeneralsorstatesmen;whatremainsisprimarilyeconomicactivity.Andindeed,Kojève'slifewasconsistentwithhisteaching.Believingthattherewasnomoreworkforphilosophersaswell,sinceHegel(correctlyunderstood)hadalreadyachievedabsoluteknowledge,KojèveleftteachingafterthewarandspenttheremainderofhislifeworkingasabureaucratintheEuropeanEconomicCommunity,untilhisdeathin1968.
Tohiscontemporariesatmid-century,Kojève'sproclamationoftheendofhistorymusthaveseemedlikethetypicaleccentricsolipsismofaFrenchintellectual,comingasitdidontheheelsofWorldWarIIandattheveryheightoftheColdWar.TocomprehendhowKojèvecouldhavebeensoaudaciousastoassertthathistoryhasended,wemustfirstofallunderstandthemeaningofHegelianidealism.
II
FORHEGEL,thecontradictionsthatdrivehistoryexistfirstofallintherealmofhumanconsciousness,i.e.onthelevelofideas[4]-notthetrivialelectionyearproposalsofAmericanpoliticians,butideasinthesenseoflargeunifyingworldviewsthatmightbestbeunderstoodundertherubricofideology.Ideologyinthissenseisnotrestrictedtothesecularandexplicitpoliticaldoctrinesweusuallyassociatewiththeterm,butcanincludereligion,culture,andthecomplexofmoralvaluesunderlyinganysocietyaswell.
Hegel'sviewoftherelationshipbetweentheidealandtherealormaterialworldswasanextremelycomplicatedone,beginningwiththefactthatforhimthedistinctionbetweenthetwowasonlyapparent.[5]Hedidnotbelievethattherealworldconformedorcouldbemadetoconformtoideologicalpreconceptions
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