克鲁格曼国际经济学第八版上册课后答案.docx
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克鲁格曼国际经济学第八版上册课后答案.docx
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克鲁格曼国际经济学第八版上册课后答案
OverviewofSectionII:
InternationalTradePolicy
SectionIIofthetextiscomprisedoffourchapters:
Chapter8 TheInstrumentsofTradePolicy
Chapter9 ThePoliticalEconomyofTradePolicy
Chapter10TradePolicyinDevelopingCountries
Chapter11ControversiesinTradePolicy
1n SectionIIOverview
Tradepolicyissuesfigureprominentlyincurrentpoliticaldebatesandpublicpolicydiscussions.The
firsttwochaptersofthissectionofthetextareconcernedwiththeinstrumentsoftradepolicyand
theargumentsforfreetradeandmanagedtrade.Thesecondtwochaptersconsidertheseconceptsinthecontextofspecificsetsofcountriesthatfacecommonproblems.Throughout,theuseofcasestudiesprovidesthestudentwithrealworldexamplesthatclearlyillustratethetheoreticalarguments.
Chapter8discussesvariousinstrumentsoftradepolicyincludingtariffs,quotas,voluntaryexportrestraints,andlocalcontentrequirements.Theeffectsofthesepoliciesonpricesandtradevolumesaredeterminedinthecontextofapartialequilibriumframework.Thechapterreviewstheanalyticaltools
ofconsumerandproducersurplus,andusesthesetoolstoconsiderthewelfareeffectsofvariousprotectionistmeasures.ThespecificincidentsoftraderestrictionspresentedascasestudiesincludeimportquotasonsugarenteringUnitedStatesmarkets,voluntaryexportrestraintsonJapaneseautos,
andoilimportquotas.
Chapter9presentsthesetofideasknownasthepoliticaleconomyoftradetheory.Theseideasenable
youtounderstandwhycertaintraderestrictionsexist,despitetheforceofgeneraleconomicargumentswhichsuggestthattheyreduceaggregatewelfare.Possiblemotivationsfortraderestrictionsareidentifiedasthosewhichincreasenationalwelfare,suchastheoptimumtariff,andthosewhichfostereitherincomeredistributionorthepreservationofstatusquo.Whilesometimespoliticallypopular,thesemotivationsfortraderestrictionsignorethepossibilityofretaliationandusuallyfailtestsbaseduponbasicwelfareanalysis.Tradeagreementsofthe1990sarediscussed,includingtheUruguayRound,anddistinctions
aremadebetweenFreeTradeAreasandCustomsUnionsaswellasbetweentradecreationandtradediversion.
Chapter10considersthepossibleusesoftradepoliciestopromotethegrowthofdevelopingeconomies.Thechapterreviewstherelativesuccessesofdifferentdevelopmentstrategies.Itexaminesargumentsforandtheresultsofimport-substitutingindustrialization.Italsodiscussesthedeclineofimport-substitutingindustrializationandtheincreaseintradeliberalizationindevelopingcountriessincethemid-1980s.ThechapterconcludeswithadiscussionofexportledgrowthandtheexperienceofthehighperformingAsianeconomies.
Chapter11considersrecentcontroversiesintradepolicy.Thefirstpartofthechapterconsidersthe
notionofstrategictradepolicy,whichfirstaroseinthe1990s.Strategictradepolicyreferstotheuseoftrade(andother)toolsforchannelingresourcestosectorstargetedforgrowthbyindustrialcountrygovernments.Thechapterpresentssomecommonlyvoicedargumentsforinterventioninparticularsectorsoftheeconomy,andthenshowshowtheseargumentsarecriticallyflawed.Thesecondpartofthechapterintroducesmoresophisticatedargumentsforstrategictradepolicy.Themostpersuasiveoftheseistheexistenceofsomeformofmarketfailure.Thethirdpartofthechapterconsiderstheimpactofrisingtradeonworkersindevelopingcountries,andmorebroadly,thedebateoverglobalization.Thisdebatehasbeenarguedinacademiaandpolicycircles,butalsoonthestreetsofSeattle,Genoa,andothercitieshostingglobaleconomicsummits.Finally,thechapterconsiderslinksbetweentradeandtheenvironment.
Chapter8
TheInstrumentsofTradePolicy
2n ChapterOrganization
BasicTariffAnalysis
Supply,Demand,andTradeinaSingleIndustry
EffectsofaTariff
MeasuringtheAmountofProtection
CostsandBenefitsofaTariff
ConsumerandProducerSurplus
MeasuringtheCostsandBenefits
OtherInstrumentsofTradePolicy
ExportSubsidies:
Theory
CaseStudy:
Europe’sCommonAgriculturalPolicy
ImportQuotas:
Theory
CaseStudy:
AnImportQuotainPractice:
U.S.Sugar
VoluntaryExportRestraints
CaseStudy:
AVoluntaryExportRestraintinPractice:
JapaneseAutos
LocalContentRequirements
Box:
AmericanBuses,MadeinHungary
OtherTradePolicyInstruments
TheEffectsofTradePolicy:
ASummary
Summary
AppendixI:
TariffAnalysisinGeneralEquilibrium
ATariffinaSmallCountry
ATariffinaLargeCountry
AppendixII:
TariffsandImportQuotasinthePresenceofMonopoly
TheModelwithFreeTrade
TheModelwithaTariff
TheModelwithanImportQuota
ComparingaTariffwithaQuota
3n
ChapterOverview
Thischapterandthenextthreefocusoninternationaltradepolicy.Studentswillhaveheardvariousargumentsforandagainstrestrictivetradepracticesinthemedia.Someoftheseargumentsaresoundandsomeareclearlynotgroundedinfact.Thischapterprovidesaframeworkforanalyzingtheeconomiceffectsoftradepoliciesbydescribingthetoolsoftradepolicyandanalyzingtheireffectsonconsumersandproducersindomesticandforeigncountries.Casestudiesdiscussactualepisodesofrestrictivetradepractices.Aninstructormighttrytounderscoretherelevanceoftheseissuesbyhavingstudentsscannewspapersandmagazinesforothertimelyexamplesofprotectionismatwork.
Theanalysispresentedheretakesapartialequilibriumview,focusingondemandandsupplyinonemarket,ratherthanthegeneralequilibriumapproachfollowedinpreviouschapters.Importdemandandexportsupplycurvesarederivedfromdomesticandforeigndemandandsupplycurves.Thereareanumberoftradepolicyinstrumentsanalyzedinthischapterusingthesetools.Someoftheimportantinstrumentsoftradepolicyincludespecifictariffs,definedastaxesleviedasafixedchargeforeachunit
ofagoodimported;advaloremtariffs,leviedasafractionofthevalueoftheimportedgood;exportsubsidies,whicharepaymentsgiventoafirmorindustrythatshipsagoodabroad;importquotas,whicharedirectrestrictionsonthequantityofsomegoodthatmaybeimported;voluntaryexportrestraints,whicharequotasontradingthatareimposedbytheexportingcountryinsteadoftheimportingcountry;andlocalcontentrequirements,whichareregulationsthatrequirethatsomespecifiedfractionofagoodisproduceddomestically.
Theimportsupplyandexportdemandanalysisdemonstratesthattheimpositionofatariffdrivesawedgebetweenpricesindomesticandforeignmarkets,andincreasespricesinthecountryimposingthetariff
andlowersthepriceintheothercountrybylessthantheamountofthetariff.Thiscontrastswithmosttextbookpresentationswhichmakethesmallcountryassumptionthatthedomesticinternalprice
equalstheworldpricetimesoneplusthetariffrate.Theactualprotectionprovidedbyatariffwill
notequalthetariffrateifimportedintermediategoodsareusedintheproductionoftheprotectedgood.Thepropermeasurement,theeffectiverateofprotection,isdescribedinthetextandcalculatedforasampleproblem.
Theanalysisofthecostsandbenefitsoftraderestrictionsrequiretoolsofwelfareanalysis.Thetextexplainstheessentialtoolsofconsumerandproducersurplus.Consumersurplusoneachunitsoldisdefinedasthedifferencebetweentheactualpriceandtheamountthatconsumerswouldhavebeenwillingtopayfortheproduct.Geometrically,consumersurplusisequaltotheareaunderthedemandcurveandabovethepriceofthegood.Producersurplusisthedifferencebetweentheminimumamountforwhichaproduceriswillingtosellhisproductandthepricewhichheactuallyreceives.Geometrically,producersurplusisequaltotheareaabovethesupplycurveandbelowthepriceline.Thesetoolsarefundamentaltothestudent’sunderstandingoftheimplicationsoftradepoliciesandshouldbedevelopedcarefully.
Thecostsofatariffincludedistortionaryefficiencylossesinbothconsumptionandproduction.Atariffprovidesgainsfromtermsoftradeimprovementwhenandifitlowerstheforeignexportprice.Summingtheareasinadiagramofinternaldemandandsupplyprovidesamethodforanalyzingthenetlossorgainfromatariff.
Otherinstrumentsoftradepolicycanbeanalyzedwiththismethod.Anexportsubsidyoperatesin
exactlythereversefashionofanimporttariff.Animportquotahassimilareffectsasanimporttariff
uponpricesandquantities,butrevenues,intheformofquotarents,accruetoforeignproducersoftheprotectedgood.Voluntaryexportrestraintsareaformofquotasinwhichimportlicensesareheldbyforeigngovernments.Localcontentrequirementsraisethepriceofimportsanddomesticgoodsanddonotresultineithergovernmentrevenueorquotarents.
Throughoutthechaptertheanalysisofdifferenttraderestrictionsareillustratedbydrawinguponspecificepisodes.Europe’scommonagriculturalpolicyprovidesandexampleofexportsubsidiesinaction.ThecasestudycorrespondingtoquotasdescribestraderestrictionsonU.S.sugarimports.VoluntaryexportrestraintsarediscussedinthecontextofJapaneseautosalestotheUnitedStates.TheoilimportquotaintheUnitedStatesinthe1960’sprovidesanexampleofalocalcontentscheme.
Therearetwoappendicestothischapter.AppendixIusesageneralequilibriumframeworktoanalyze
theimpactofatariff,departingfromthepartialequilibriumapproachtakeninthechapter.Whenasmallcountryimpo
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