syntax篇章 发表.docx
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syntax篇章发表
MiddleEnglish(Syntax)
2013.11.14
WangJin
1.Gender(P39)
●InearlyMiddleEnglish,asinOldEnglish,noun,adjective,andpronounagreeingender,aswellasincaseandnumber.Thedecayofthesystemofinflexionsinnounsandadjectivesandthesimplificationoftheformsofthedefinitearticle,leftnounswithprogressivelyfewerindicationsofgender:
sestān(nom,sing,mas)þeston;þǣretale(gen,sing,fem)þetales.
●grammaticalgendernaturalgender
NounsinearlyMiddleEnglishstillcommonlyretainedgrammaticalgender,asindicatedbyformsofthearticle,orbypronounsoradjectiveinflexion.
2.Number(P39)
●Theisvariationinthetreatmentofcollectivenouns,suchas‘court’,‘folk’,‘world’,justasthereistoday:
alþetunscipe(sg,peopleoftheviliage);bale,‘packages’issingularnounwithpluralsense.
●Aco-ordinatedgroupofnounsmayberegardedasasingleentity:
þesegeandþeassautwatzsesed,‘thethroneandtheassaultwas(pastindicative)ceased’.
●Afternumerals,nounssometimeshavenopluralending:
xixwintre,foureandtwentyȝere.
‘Many’isoftenaccompaniedbythesingular:
monyluflychlorde,‘manygraciouslord’.
●AsinOldEnglish,theneuterpronoun‘it’maybeusedwiththeverbare/weretorefertoapluralsubject:
hitarnerefetyd,‘theyarefed’.
3.UseofCases(P40)
3.1NominativeandAccusative
●Thenominativecaseisusedforsubjectandtheaccusativefortheobject,butthedistinctionsinformarerapidlylostfromallexceptpronouns.Inearlytextsthedistinctionscanstillsometimesbeobservedinarticlesandadjectives.
●Theaccusativeisusedaftersomeprepositions,whereitisstilldistinctfromthedative:
overbradne(masc.acc.sg)wæld,‘inallplain’.
3.2Genitive(sg.-es,-e;pl.-e,-es,-en,-ene)
●Thegenitiveindicatespossession(Þasmonnesearen,‘theearsofman’)ordefinition(AncreneWisse,‘Anchoresses’guide’).
●Occasionallythegenitiveiswithoutending,innoun-compoundwheretwonounsareinparallel:
sistersuns(sister’ssons,nephews).
●Theuseoftheof-phraseasanalternativewaybecomesincreasinglycommon:
Þefaceoffrelychdryȝtyn.
●Inafewtexts,mainlyfromtheSouth-WestMidlands,thegenitiveinflexionisreplacedbyhis:
Godhysheste,‘God’sCommandment’.
●Twoormoregenitivenounsmaybeinparallel:
HewesUðeresÞasaðelenkinges,‘IthadbeenthenoblekingUther’s’.
●Ifanounthatgovernsthegenitiveexpressionsisalsopresent,thegenitivegroupoftensplitsaroundit,andonlythefirstelementisinflected.milordesloveSirOrfeo,‘MylordSirOrfeo’slove’.
●Thegenitiveisusedwithsuperlativeadjectives:
læðestalreÞinge,‘mosthatefulofallthings’.Later,ofbecomesstandard:
Þefairestofeverykinne,‘thebestofeverykind’.
●Adverbialusesofthegenitivearemostcommoninexpressionoftime:
Þufliȝstniȝtes,‘youflyatnight’.Theadverbialgenitivecanbereinforcedwithapreposition:
benihtesandbedæies,‘bynightandbyday’.
●Afternumerals,the‘partitivegenitive’isfound:
fifandtwentyÞusend/Wihteremonnen,‘25000(of)boldmen’.Bycontrast,thegenitiveisoftennotusedwithnounssuchasscore,manner,kin.
●Inearlytextsthegenitiveisoccasionallyusedaftersomeadjectives,suchasful,‘full’andunilic,‘unlike’:
ælchenoðereunilic,‘unlikeallothers’.
3.3Dative(sg.-e,pl.-e,-en,-es)
●Themostcommonuseofthedativecaseiswithprepositionssuchasto,midandbi.
Afterthedativesingular–eendingwaslostfromnouns,thedativebecameindistinguishablefromothercaseswithoutinflexion.
●Thedativeisusedforindirectobject.Theindirectorderhadtobedistinguishedfromthedirectobjectbyword-orderortheuseofto,asinModernEnglish:
ȝevehembenes,‘givethembeans’.
●SomeadjectivesuchasloÞ,‘hateful’andlef,‘see’havedativeobjects:
loÞsmalefoȝle,‘hatefultosmallbirds’.
●OldEnglishuseofadativepronoun(possessivedative)toindicatepossessionisstillfound:
freshehymÞeface,‘hisfaceunblemished’.
●Theadverbialdativeisrareandissupersededentirelybyprepositionalphrases.midfulledremeandludestefne,‘withfullmelodyandaresonantvoice’.
●Apleonasticdativepronounme,the‘ethicdative’,expressesthespeaker’sinterestinthefactstated:
heswengesÞyssweteschip,‘itturnsthisfineship’.
●Otheruseswithverbs,reflexivepronoun,impersonalverbs,andverbsofmotion.
4.PronounsandArticles(P42)
4.1Þouandȝe(you)
●Þouisusedbetweenequalsandtoinferiors,whereasȝeisusedinrepresentationsofpolitespeechinaddresstoasuperior.
4.2Non-expressionofPersonalPronoun
●Quiteregularly,apersonalpronoun,eithersubjectorobject,isnotexpressedinMiddleEnglish.AsindeedinModernEnglish,thesubjectpronoundoesnotneedtobeexpressedinaseriesofco-ordinateclauses:
Þeniȝtingalehiiseȝ/Andhibeholdandoverseȝ,‘thenightingalesawherandbeheldandwatchedher’.
●Thereareothersituations.Theunexpressedsubjectofthemainclausecanbeunderstoodfromthesubordinateclauseprecedingit.
●Unexpressedsubjectisclearfromverb-endingsandothergrammaticalfeatures:
Orbeggestthybylyve,‘Or(you)begforyourfood’.
●Thegrammaticalsubject‘it’maybeunexpressed.Itisespeciallycommoninimpersonalexpression.
●Similarlytheobjectpronounmaybeunderstoodfromthecontext.
4.3Man
●Theindefinitepronounmancausesdifficultiesonseveralcounts.Itvariesinform:
manmonmen.Theunstressedformmeissometimesmistakenforthefirstpersonpronoun.
●ThereisnoexactequivalentformaninModernEnglish-one,anyone,they,people,we,you-orapassiveconstructionisusedinstead.
menechidewitÞegidie,‘oneshouldnotquarrelwithfools’.
riȝtsomegruldeschilleharpe,‘justassomeoneweretwangingashrillharp’,‘justasashrillharpweretwanged’.
4.4Self
●InModernEnglishareflexivepronounisdistinguishedbytheadditionof–self.
●InMiddleEnglishselfservestoreinforcethepronoun.ettewithhymselvenmeans‘atewithhim’,not‘atebyhimself’;Þouselfjugge,means‘youjudge’,not‘judgeyourself’.
●Later,selfistreatedasanounandaccompaniesthegenitivepronoun:
myselfandmysoule.
●Selfservestoreinforcenouns:
underKrystesselven,‘underChristhimself’.
4.5ReflexivePronouns
●ThereisnoreflexivepronouninMiddleEnglish.Theordinarypersonalpronounisused:
ȝifichmeloki,‘ifIguardmyself’.
●Thereisreciprocaluse:
wecusteus,‘wekissedoneanother’.
●Apronounmaybereinforcedbytheadditionofself.
●Someverbsexpressingfear,angerandthelike,andmanyverbsofmotion,areaccompaniedbyareflexivepronoun:
thenneganWastortowrathhym,‘thenWasterbegantogetangry’.
●Theverb‘be’mayoccasionallytakeareflexivepronoun:
ÞenehimwesArður,‘thanArthurwas’.
4.6RelativePronouns
●ThemostcommonrelativepronouncorrespondingtoModernEnglish‘who’,‘which’and‘that’isÞat,usedtorefertobothpersonalandnon-personalantecedents,singularandplural.
●InearlytextsÞeandÞaarealsoused.InLaȝamon’sBrut,Þereferstomasculinesingularantecedents,Þareferstopluralandfemininesingular,andÞatreferstoinanimateorneutersingular.Yetthedistinctionisnotclear-cut.
●Þatisregularlyusedasarelativewithouttheantecedentnounorpronoun,whenitisequivalenttomodern‘what’or‘hewho’,‘anyonewho’:
nowÞatLondonisnevenyd,‘whatisnowcalledLondon’.
●Inordertoindicatecase,Þatiscombinedwithapersonalpronoun,soÞat…hismeans‘whose’.
Þatmayreferstothegenitivepronounhisratherthanitsnoun:
ÞerwatzbyldedhisbourÞatwylnobalesuffer,‘therewasbuiltthebowerofthemanwhowillsuffernoharm’.
●InlaterMiddleEnglishwhichbecomesincreasinglycommonasanalternativetoÞat,forbothpersonsandthings:
Thisabbot,whichÞat,‘thisabbot,who’;Þewhichisfavoredbywriters:
oprincipalworchingmiȝtÞewhicheisclepidaknowablemiȝt,‘oneprincipalworkingpower,whichiscalledaknowledgeablepower’.
●Thereissometimesnorelativepronounatall.The‘zero’relativepronounisusedinModernEnglishastheobjectoftheclause:
thewoman(whom)Isaw’.InMiddleEnglishitisalsousedwhenitissubject:
frobalehasbroȝtus,‘fromanguish(who)hasbroughtus’.
4.7TheArticles
●Usageofthedefinitearticleisvariable.Whennamesfollownouns:
ÞekingStephneinearlyexpression,KyngCharlesinlaterexpression.Whennounsfollownames:
sometimesMartinabbot,sometimesPeresÞeploughman.
●BoththedefiniteandindefinitearticlesmaybeabsentwhereModernEnglishwouldusethem.
●Theadjectivesechandeverymaybefollowedbya:
everichagrot,‘everydetail’.
5.AdjectivesandAdverbs(P45)
5.1Positions
●Attributiveadjectivesmostcommonlyprecedethenoun.Inversetheymayfollowthenoun.
●Twoormoreadjectivesmaybegroupedaroundthenoun:
wyldewerblesandwyȝt,‘wildandloudtrillings’.
●Sometimestheadjectiveprecedesthearticleorpossessivepronoun:
baldeminebeornes,‘myboldknights’,andShakespeare’s‘dearmylord’.
5.2ComparativesandSuperlatives
●Comparativeandsuperlativeadjectivesandadverbsareformedbyaddingtheendings–erand–est.
●Theuseofmoreandmostisnotcommon,chieflywithshortadjectives:
mostkyd,‘mostfamous’.
●Doublecomparison,withbothmoreandthesuffix–er,isseeninmorewighter,‘stronger’.
●Superlativesmaybeintensifiedbyaddingtheprefixalder-(fromOEalra,‘ofall’):
alder-grattyst,‘greatestofall’;byafollowingphrasesuchasofalloÞer;orbytheprecedingoneÞe:
onÞemost,‘theverybiggest’.
5.3Adjectives
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