胡壮麟 Chapter 04.docx

胡壮麟 Chapter 04.docx

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胡壮麟Chapter04

ChapterFour

FromWordtoText

⏹Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.

1.Syntacticrelations

⏹Syntacticrelationscanbeanalysedintothreekinds:

⏹relationsofposition

⏹relationsofsubstitutability

⏹relationsofco-occurrence

1.1RelationsofPosition

⏹Forlanguagetofulfillitscommunicativefunction,itmusthaveawaytomarkthegrammaticalrolesofthevariousphrasesthatcanoccurinaclause.

⏹Theboykickedtheball

NP1NP2

SubjectObject

⏹Positionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.

⏹Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage,onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall.

⏹Forexample,

⏹Theboykickedtheball

⏹*Boytheballkickedthe

⏹*Theballkickedtheboy

⏹Theteachersawthestudents

⏹Thestudentssawtheteacher

⏹PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelationsobservedbyF.deSaussure.

⏹TheyarealsocalledHorizontalRelationsorsimplyChainRelations.

⏹Wordorderisamongthethreebasicways（wordorder,geneticandarealclassifications）toclassifylanguagesintheworld:

⏹SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,andVOS.

⏹EnglishbelongstoSVOtype,thoughthisdoesnotmeanthatSVOistheonlypossiblewordorder.

1.2RelationofSubstitutability

⏹TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.

⏹The ______smiles. 

man

boy

girl

⏹Italsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.

strongman

⏹Thetallestboysmiles.

prettygirl

yesterday.

⏹Hewenttherelastweek.

thedaybefore.

⏹ThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussure,andParadigmaticRelationsbyHjemslev.

⏹Tomakeitmoreunderstandable,theyarecalledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations.

1.3RelationofCo-occurrence

⏹Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.

⏹Forinstance,anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective（s）andfollowedbyaverbalphrase.

⏹Relationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.

2.Grammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents

2.1GrammaticalConstruction

⏹Anysyntacticstringofwordsrangingfromsentencesoverphrasalstructurestocertaincomplexlexemes.

⏹anapple

⏹ateanapple

⏹Maryateanapple

2.2ConstituentsandPhraseStructure

⏹Constituentisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction:

⏹thegirl（NP）

⏹atetheapple（VP）

⏹thegirlatetheapple（S）

ImmediateConstituentAnalysis

（ICAnalysis）

Thegirlatetheapple

PhraseStructure

Treediagram

Bracketing

⏹Bracketingisnotascommoninuse,butitisaneconomicnotationinrepresentingtheconstituent/phrasestructureofagrammaticalunit.

⏹（（（The）（girl）） （（ate） （（the）（apple））））

⏹[S[NP[DetThe][Ngirl]][VP[Vate][NP[Detthe][Napple]]]]

2.3EndocentricandExocentricConstructions

⏹Endocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead.

⏹Usuallynounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetotheHead.

⏹Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup,usuallyincluding

⏹thebasicsentence,

⏹theprepositionalphrase,

⏹thepredicate（verb+object）construction,and

⏹theconnective（be+complement）construction.

⏹Theboysmiled.（Neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestructureasawhole.）

⏹Hehidbehindthedoor.（Neitherconstituentcanfunctionasanadverbial.）

⏹Hekickedtheball.（Neitherconstituentstandsfortheverb-objectsequence.）

⏹Johnseemedangry.（Afterdivision,theconnectiveconstructionnolongerexists.）

2.4CoordinationandSubordination

⏹Endocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes,dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents:

Coordination

⏹CoordinationisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.

⏹Thesetwoormorewordsorphrasesorclauseshaveequivalentsyntacticstatus,eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally.

⏹CoordinationofNPs:

⏹[NPthelady]or[NPthetiger]

⏹CoordinationofVPs:

⏹[VPgotothelibrary]and[VPreadabook]

⏹CoordinationofPPs:

⏹[PPdownthestairs]and[PPoutthedoor]

⏹CoordinationofAPs:

⏹[APquiteexpensive]and[APverybeautiful]

⏹CoordinationofSs:

⏹[SJohnlovesMary]and[SMarylovesJohntoo].

Subordination

⏹Subordinationreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.

⏹Thesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifythehead.Consequently,theycanbecalledmodifiers.

⏹two dogs

         Head

⏹（Mybrother）candrink（wine）.

Head

⏹Swimminginthelake（isfun）.

Head

⏹（Thepepperwas）hotbeyondendurance.

Head

Subordinateclauses

⏹Clausescanbeusedassubordinateconstituents.Therearethreebasictypesofsubordinateclauses:

⏹complementclauses

⏹adjunct（oradverbial）clauses

⏹relativeclauses

⏹Johnbelieves[thattheairplanewasinventedbyanIrishman].（complementclause）

⏹Elizabethopenedherpresents[beforeJohnfinishedhisdinner].（adverbialclause）

⏹Thewoman[thatIlove]ismovingtothesouth.（relativeclause）

3.SyntacticFunction

⏹Thesyntacticfunctionshowstherelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.

⏹Namesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicators,modifiers,complements,etc.

3.1Subject

⏹Insomelanguages,subjectreferstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase.

⏹ThetypicalexamplecanbefoundinLatin,wheresubjectisalwaysinnominativecase,suchaspaterandfiliusinthefollowingexamples.

⏹paterfiliumamat（thefatherlovestheson）

⏹patrumfiliusamat（thesonlovesthefather）

⏹InEnglish,thesubjectofasentenceisoftensaidtobetheagent,orthedoeroftheaction,whiletheobjectisthepersonorthingacteduponbytheagent.

⏹Thisdefinitionseemstoworkforthesesentences:

⏹MaryslappedJohn.■AdogbitBill.

⏹butisclearlywronginthefollowingexamples:

⏹Johnwasbittenbyadog.

⏹Johnunderwentmajorheartsurgery.

⏹Inordertoaccountforthecaseofsubjectinpassivevoice,wehavetwootherterms“grammaticalsubject”（John）and“logicalsubject”（adog）.

⏹Anothertraditionaldefinitionofthesubjectis“whatthesentenceisabout”（i.e.,topic）.

⏹Again,thisseemstoworkformanysentences,suchas

⏹Billisaverycraftyfellow.

⏹butfailsinothers,suchas

⏹（Jackisprettyreliable,but）BillIdon’ttrust.

⏹AsforBill,Iwouldn’ttakehispromisesveryseriously.

⏹Allthreesentencesseemtobe“about”Bill;thuswecouldsaythatBillisthetopicofallthreesentences.

⏹Theabovesentencesmakeitclearthatthetopicisnotalwaysthegrammaticalsubject.

⏹Whatcharacteristicsdosubjectshave?

Wordorder

⏹Subjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatement:

⏹Sallycollectsstamps.

⏹*CollectsSallystamps.

Pro-forms

⏹ThefirstandthirdpersonpronounsinEnglishappearinaspecialformwhenthepronounisasubject,whichisnotusedwhenthepronounoccursinotherpositions:

⏹Helovesme.

⏹Ilovehim.

⏹Wethrewstonesatthem.

⏹Theythrewstonesatus.

Agreementwiththeverb

⏹Inthesimplepresenttense,an-sisaddedtotheverbwhenathirdpersonsubjectissingular,butthenumberandpersonoftheobjectoranyotherelementinthesentencehavenoeffectatallontheformoftheverb:

⏹Sheangershim.

⏹Theyangerhim.  

⏹Sheangersthem.

Contentquestions

⏹Ifthesubjectisreplacedbyaquestionword（whoorwhat）,therestofthesentenceremainsunchanged,asin

⏹JohnstoletheQueen’spicturefromtheBritishCouncil.

⏹WhostoletheQueen’spicturefromtheBritishcouncil?

⏹WhatwouldJohnsteal,ifhehadthechance?

⏹WhatdidJohnstealfromtheBritishCouncil?

⏹WheredidJohnstealtheQueen’spicturefrom?

Tagquestion

⏹Atagquestionisusedtoseekconfirmationofastatement.Italwayscontainsapronounwhichrefersbacktothesubject,andnevertoanyotherelementinthesentence.

⏹JohnlovesMary,doesn’the?

⏹MarylovesJohn,doesn’tshe?

⏹*JohnlovesMary,doesn’tshe?

3.2Predicate

⏹Predicatereferstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectwereconsideredtogether.

⏹Itusuallyexpressesactions,processes,andstatesthatrefertothesubject.

⏹Theboyisrunning.（process）

⏹Peterbroketheglass.（action）

⏹Janemustbemad!

（state）

⏹Thewordpre