新编简明英语语言学教程重点笔记赶考秘籍.docx
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新编简明英语语言学教程重点笔记赶考秘籍.docx
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新编简明英语语言学教程重点笔记赶考秘籍
新编简明英语语言学教程(重点笔记-赶考秘籍)
1.1Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.
Itisascientificstudybecauseit(a)isbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata.It(b)discoversthenatureandrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem.It(c)collectslanguagefactsthatdisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem.
Thestudyoflanguageasawholeifoftencalledgenerallinguistics.
phonetics(语音学):
thestudyofsounds
phonology(音位学):
howsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaning
morphology(形态学):
howmorphemes(词素)arearrangedandcombinedtoformwords
syntax(句法学):
thestudyofrulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentences
semantics(语义学):
thestudyofmeaning
pragmatics(语用学):
thestudyofmeaninginthecontextoflanguageuse
interdisciplinarybranches:
sociolinguistics(社会语言学),psycholinguistics(心理语言学),appliedlinguistics(应用语言学)
Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics
prescriptive(规定性oldlinguistics)vs.descriptive(描述性modernlinguistics)
synchronic(共时性)vs.diachronic(历时性):
mostlinguisticstudiesareofsynchronicdescriptions,whichispriorinmodernlinguistics
speechandwriting:
speechispriortowritinginmodernlinguistics
langue(语言系统abstractlinguisticsystem)andparole(话语/言语realizationoflangueinactualuse):
SwisslinguistF.deSaussure----forefatherofmodernlinguistics
competence(语言能力idealuser’sknowledgeofrulesofhislanguage)andperformance(语言运用actualrealizationofthisknowledge):
AmericanlinguistN.Chomsky
traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics:
Saussure’sbook“CourseinGeneralLinguistics”markedthebeginningofmodernlinguistics
1.2Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.
LAD:
LanguageAcquisitionDevice-----Chomsky
Arbitrariness(任意性):
Differentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.
Productivity/creativity(能产性):
Constructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsarepossible,sothatlargenumberofsentencescanbeproduced.
Duality(双层性):
Twolevelsenablepeopletotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge.lowerlevel(sounds)---higherlevel(words)
Displacement(移位性):
enablepeopletotalkaboutawiderangeofthings,freefrombarrierscausedbyseparationintimeorplace.
Culturaltransmission(文化传承):
Wearebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsoflanguagesystemhavetobetaughtandlearned.
2.1Speechandwritingarethetwomediaforcommunication,ofwhichspeechis
morebasic/primary.
Thesoundswhichareproducedbyhumansthroughtheirspeechorgansandmeaningfulincommunicationconstitutethephonicmediumoflanguage.Theindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds.
2.2Phoneticsisthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,whichconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.
articulatoryphonetics,auditoryphonetics,acousticphonetics
Speechorgans:
pharyngeal;cavity---throat;oralcavity---mouth;nasalcavity---nose
IPA:
国际音标diacritics:
变音符
broadtranscription:
宽式标音(usedindictionariesandteachingtextbooks)
narrowtranscription:
严式标音(usedbyphoneticiansintheirstudy)
vowels(theairstreammeetswithnoobstruction)andconsonants(obstructed)
stops(塞音),fricatives(擦音),affricates(塞擦音),liquids(流音),nasals,glides,bilabial(双唇音),laviodental(唇齿音),dental(齿音),alveolar(齿龈音),palatal(腭音),velar(软腭音),glottal(喉音)
closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,openvowels(openness)
unroundedvowels,roundedvowels(shapeofthelips)
long/tensevowels----short/laxvowels
monophthongs(单元音),diphthongs(双元音)(singleorcombined)
2.3Phonologyandphoneticsdifferintheirapproachandfocus.
phonology:
howspeechsoundsformpatternsandareusedtoconveymeaning
concernedwithsoundsystemofaparticularlanguage
phonetics:
ofageneralnature,interestedinallthespeechsounds
Aphone(音素)isaphoneticunitorsegment.(speechsoundsareallphones)
aphonedoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning
Aphoneme(音位)isaphonologicalunit.(anabstractunitofdistinctivevalue)
notparticularsound,butisrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext
Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophones(音位变体)ofthatphoneme.
Rulesinphonology:
Sequentialrules(序列规则)---rulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.
Assimilationrule(同化规则)---assimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.foreaseofarticulation(清晰发音)e.g.green,scream
Deletionrule(省略规则)---e.g.designation
Suprasegmentalfeatures(超切分特征):
thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.
stress(重音)---wordstressandsentencestress
ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.
E.g.‘import(n.)im’port(v.)//blackbirdvs.blackbird
tone(语调)---pitchvariation(音高变体)distinguishmeaningE.g.汉语四声
Intonation(音调)---Englishtones:
fallingtone,risingtone,fall-risetone,rise-falltone
E.g.That’snotthebookhewants.
3.1Morphology:
studyoftheinternalstructureofwords,andrulesbywhichwordsareformed
3.2openclasswords(开放类):
newwordscanbeadded—nouns,verbs,adjectiveandadverbs
closedclasswords(封闭类):
“grammatical”or“functional”words
3.3Wordisthesmallestfreeformfoundinlanguage.
Morphemesaretheminimalunitsofmeaning.
Freeandboundmorphemes(自由词素canbeawordbyitself粘着词素mustbeattachedtoanotherone---affix)
3.4V----teach
NAf----er
3.5Derivationalandinflectionalmorphemes(派生词素和屈折词素)
FreemorphemesBoundmorphemes
RootRootAffix
dog,cat-ceivePrefixSuffix
grammar-vertDerivationalDerivationalInflectional
…-mitun-,dis--ment-s,-ing,-‘s,-er
3.6Morphologicalrulesdeterminehowmorphemescombinetoformwords.E.g.un-accept-able
3.8Anotherwaytoformwordsiscompounding.E.g.bittersweet
WordFormations:
compounding,blending,backformation,shortening
4.1Syntaxstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.
4.2Categoryisagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.
Syntacticcategories—word-levelcategories:
majorlexicalcategories(oftenassumedastheheadsaroundwhichphrasesarebuilt)
---Noun(N)Verb(V)Adjective(A)Preposition(P)
minorlexicalcategories---Determiner(Det)Degreewords(Deg)Qualifier(Qual)Auxiliary(Aux)Conjunction(Con)
Threecriteria(条件)determiningaword’scategory:
meaning,inflection(变形)anddistribution(分布)
Aword’scategorycanbedeterminedonlybyallthreecriteria.
Phrasecategoryisdeterminedbythewordcategoryaroundwhichthephraseisbuilt.
nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),adjectivephrase(AP),prepositionalphrase(PP)
phrasesthatareformedofmorethanonewordusuallycontain :
head,specifier,complement
4.3Phrasestructurerule---specialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismregulatingthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphrase
NP→(Det)N(PP)anNPconsistsofadeterminer,anNhead,andaPPcomplement
VP→(Qual)V(NP)aVPconsistsofaqualifier,aVhead,andanNPcomplement
AP→(Deg)A(PP)……
PP→(Deg)P(NP)……
XPrule:
XP→(specifier)X(complement)
Coordinationrule:
coordinatestructures(consistaconjunction“and”/”or”)
X→X*ConX
EitheranXoranXPcanbecoordinated;oneormorecategoriescanoccurtotheleftoftheCon.
4.4Phraseelements:
specifiers,complements,modifiers
specifiersdeterminerqualifierdegreeword
headsNVA/P
complementizers(Cs)—wordsintroducingthesentencecomplement
complementclause—sentenceintroducedbythecomplementizercomplementphrase(CP)
matrixclause—constructioninwhichtheCPembeded嵌入
As,Ns,PscanalltakeCP.Adjectives:
(heads)afraid,certain,aware
Nouns:
(heads)fact,claim,beliefPrepositions:
(heads)over,about
modifiers:
alllexicalcategoriescanhavemodifiers.
AP(+Ns):
precedestheheade.g.averycarefulgirlPP(+Vs):
followstheheade.g.openwithcareAdvP(+Vs):
precedesorfollowstheheade.g.readcarefully/carefullyread
TheExpandedXPrule:
XP→(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)
4.5TheSrule:
S→NPVP------Inflp(=S)→NPInflVP------Inflcanbetakenbyanabstractcategoryencodedinaverbindicatingtenseoranauxiliary(助动词)
4.6Transformationaspecialrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanother
auxiliarymovement(助动词移位)inversion:
moveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.
withinlargerCPs(embeddedornot):
inversion:
moveInfltoC.P53Figure4-8
doinsertion(插入):
insertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition,thanmoveInfltoC.
deepandsurfacestructure:
e.g.Willthetrainarrive?
Deep:
SSurface:
Willthetrain____arrive?
NPVP
DetNInflV
thetrainwillarrive
TheXPrule→Dstructure→transformations→Sstructure
whmovement:
movethewhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence/thespecifierpositionunderCP
P57Figure4-16P58Figure4-18
moveαandconstraintsontransformations
moveα:
generalruleforallthemovementrulesα:
anyelementthatcanbemoved
limits:
inversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCposition
noelementmayberemovedfromacoordinatestructure
5.1Semanticsisthestudyofmeaning(fromalinguisticpointofview.)
5.2Thenamingtheory:
Thewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.
Thelimitationsofthistheoryareobvious.There’sverbs,adjectives,etc.andalsoabstractnouns.
Theconceptualistview:
Wordsandthingsarerelatedthroughth
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