General management history.docx

General management history.docx

《General management history.docx》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《General management history.docx（15页珍藏版）》请在冰豆网上搜索。

Generalmanagementhistory

GENERALMANAGEMENT

WhatisManagement?

TheAmericanManagementAssociationdefinesmanagementas"theprocessofgettingworkdonethroughpeople."Itismanagement'sresponsibilitytoachieveandmaintainabusinessorganization'seffectiveness.Traditionally,managementincludesthefollowingactivities:

planning,organizing,leading,andcontrolling.Morespecifically,managementisresponsiblefortheprimaryactivitiesofthefirm;thosebeinginboundlogistics,operations,outboundlogistics,marketingandsales,andservice.Managementisalsoresponsibleforthesupportactivitiesofinfrastructure（accounting,finance,strategicplanning）,humanresourcemanagement（recruiting,traininganddevelopment,compensationmanagement）,technologydevelopment（productandprocessimprovement）,andprocurement（materialacquisition）.Managementcrossesculturalboundariesasmostorganizationsofsignificantsizeoperateinternationally.Primaryandsupportactivitiesareperformedinaninternationalcontext.Therearemanyotherdefinitionsofmanagement,insummanagementfocusesontheentireorganizationfrombothashortandalong-termperspective.Managementisthemanagerialprocessofformingastrategicvision,settingobjectives,craftingastrategyandthenimplementingandexecutingthestrategy.Managementgoesbeyondtheorganization’sinternaloperationstoincludetheindustryandthegeneralenvironment.Thekeyemphasisisonissuesrelatedtoenvironmentalscanningandindustryanalysis,appraisalofcurrentandfuturecompetitors,assessmentofcorecompetencies,strategiccontrolandtheeffectiveallocationoforganizationalresources.Ingeneralterms,therearetwoapproachestomanagement.

TheIndustrialOrganizationApproach:

Thisapproachisbasedoneconomictheorywhichdealswithissueslikecompetitiverivalry,resourceallocation,economiesofscale.Thisapproachtomanagementassumesrationality,selfinterestedbehavior,profitmaximization.

TheSociologicalApproach:

Thisapproachdealsprimarilywithhumaninteractions.Itassumesrationality,satisfyingbehavior,profitsub-optimality.

Managementtheoriescanalsobedividedintotwosets.Oneisthesetthatconcentratesmainlyonefficiencyandanotheristhesetthatconcentratesmainlyoneffectiveness.Efficiencyisaboutdoingthingstherightway.Itinvolveseliminatingwasteandoptimizingprocesses.Effectivenessisaboutdoingtherightthings.Agoodmanagementstyleisablendofbothefficiencyandeffectiveness.Thereisnopointinactingefficientlyifwhatyouaredoingwillnothavethedesiredeffect.Managementtechniquescanbeviewedaseitherbottom-up,top-down,orcollaborativeprocesses.InmanycountriessuchasEuropeandtheEasterncountriesthetopdownapproachispopular.IntheU.S.Managementispracticedinmanydifferentways.Inthetop-downapproach,themanagementmakesthedecisions,whichtheemployeeshavenochoicebuttoaccept.Ontheotherhand,inthebottom-upapproach,employeessubmitproposalstotheirmanagerswho,inturn,funnelthebestideasfurtheruptheorganization.Thebottomupapproachisnotpopularforfamilyrunbusinesses.

Whatismanagementscience?

TheJudgeBusinessSchoolattheUniversityofCambridge,UK,definesManagementScienceasfollows:

ManagementScienceisaninterdisciplinaryfieldthatappliesmathematics,statistics,computerscienceandeconomicstoproblemsandissuesofmanagementinboththeprivateandpublicsectorsandacrossallbusinessfunctions,fromoperationstofinanceandfrommarketingtostrategy.Mathematicalmodelsareusedtodevelopanunderstandingofthe"physics"ofasituation（e.g.theflowofreal,physicalobjectssuchasmaterialsandtheobservableactionsofpeople）andtoconnectthephysicstotheeconomics（e.g.financialflowsorsocialcostsandbenefits）.ManagementScience,asabodyofknowledge,focusesonquantifiablevariables;keyconceptsincludechange,uncertainty,optimalityandefficiency.Weaimtounderstandmanagementproblemsandmanagementsystemsinthesamewayasphysicistsandengineersunderstandtheirsystems:

bydecomposingthemintosuitableparts,studyingtheparts,possiblysub-dividingagain,andthenstudyinghowthesepartsarecombinedandintegratedtoproducethefunctionoftheoverallsystem.Modelingisourcoremethodology.Ourcredois"wedonotunderstandwhatwecannotmodel."Notallmanagementproblemsareamenabletoa"ManagementSciencetreatment"-butmanyare.Thedecompositionapproachofengineeringoffersageneralroadmaptounderstandingamanagementproblemorsystemandimprovingit.

Akeydifferencebetween"real"scienceandManagementScienceisthatmanagementproblemsdon'thaveanatural"rightanswer".Mostmanagementproblemsaresignificantlymorecomplexandmessythantraditionalscientificproblems.Theyincludehumaninteractionsandtakeplaceinpoliticalenvironments,whicharenotgovernedbysimplerulesthatcanbeformulatedinatractablemathematicalorcomputationalmodel.Evenifwecandeviseamodelthatwebelievereflectsareal-lifemanagementsituationquitewell,thereisoftenalackofreliabledatatofeedintothemodelandcalibrateittothepracticalsituation.Wemustalwaysbeawareoftheseinherentlimitationsofourdiscipline.Inthatregard,thetermManagementScienceisamisnomer.Infact,thedisciplineismuchlessambitiousandmuchmorepragmatic:

Theremaynotbearightanswerbuttherearemoresensibleandlesssensibleanswers,thereareanswersthatworkbetteroraremoreconvincingthanothers.Anddataandmodelscanhelpusdistinguishthegoodfromthebad.ThisistheplaygroundofManagementScienceanditisthispragmatic"whatcountsiswhatworks"attitudethatthedisciplineshareswiththeengineeringfield

（1）.

Historyofmanagement

Forustounderstandwhattheorywecanapplytoday,wemustknowwhathasbeendoneinthepast;whatweshouldcapitalizeonandwhatweshouldnotrepeat.Thehistoryofmanagementleadsustounderstandthecomplexityofthe

topicandthechallengescontemporaryleadersfacetoday.Modernmanagementwouldnotbeapplicableifpreviousmanagementtheoriesarenotstudied.

ClassicalSchool

TheClassicalschoolofthoughtbeganaround1900andcontinuedintothe1920s.Traditionalorclassicalmanagementfocusesonefficiencyandincludesbureaucratic,scientificandadministrativemanagement.Bureaucraticmanagementreliesonarationalsetofstructuringguidelines,suchasrulesandprocedures,hierarchy,andacleardivisionoflabor.Scientificmanagementfocusesonthe"onebestway"todoajob.Administrativemanagementemphasizestheflowofinformationintheoperationoftheorganization.

Bureaucracy

MaxWeber（1864-1920）,knownastheFatherofModernSociology,analyzedbureaucracyasthemostlogicalandrationalstructureforlargeorganizations.Bureaucraciesarefoundedonlegalorrationalauthoritywhichisbasedonlaw,procedures,rules,andsoon.Positionalauthorityofasuperioroverasubordinatestemsfromlegalauthority.Charismaticauthoritystemsfromthepersonalqualitiesofanindividual.Efficiencyinbureaucraciescomesfrom:

（1.）clearlydefinedandspecializedfunctions;（2.）useoflegalauthority;（3.）hierarchicalform;（4.）writtenrulesandprocedures;（5.）technicallytrainedbureaucrats;（6.）appointmenttopositionsbasedontechnicalexpertise;（7.）promotionsbasedoncompetence;（8.）clearlydefinedcareerpaths.

ScientificManagement

Scientificmanagementfocusesonworkerandmachinerelationships.Organizationalproductivitycanbeincreasedbyincreasingtheefficiencyofproductionprocesses.Theefficiencyperspectiveisconcernedwithcreatingjobsthateconomizeontime,humanenergy,andotherproductiveresources.Jobsaredesignedsothateachworkerhasaspecified,wellcontrolledtaskthatcanbeperformedasinstructed.Specificproceduresandmethodsforeachjobmustbefollowedwithnoexceptions.

FrederickTaylor（1856-1915）

ManyofFrederickTaylor'sdefinitivestudieswereperformedatBethlehemSteelCompanyinPittsburgh.Toimproveproductivity,Taylorexaminedthetimeandmotiondetailsofajob,developedabettermethodforperformingthatjob,andtrainedtheworker.Furthermore,Taylorofferedapieceratethatincreasedasworkersproducedmore.In1911,FrederickTaylor,knownastheFatherofScientificManagement,publishedPrinciplesofScientificManagementinwhichheproposedworkmethodsdesignedtoincreaseworkerproductivity.Oneofhisfamousexperimentshadtodowithincreasingtheoutputofaworkerloadingpigirontoarailcar.Taylorbrokethejobdownintoitssmallestconstituentmovements,timingeachonewithastopwatch.Thejobwasredesignedwithareducednumberofmotionsaswellaseffortandtheriskoferror.Restperiodsofspecificintervalanddurationandadifferentialpayscalewereusedtoimprovetheoutput.Withscientificmanagement,Taylorincreasedtheworker'soutputfrom12to47tonsperday!

TheTaylormodelgaverisetodramaticproductivityincreases.

Frank（1868-1924）andLillian（1878-1972）Gilbreth

FrankandLillianGilbrethemphasizedmethodbyfocusingonidentifyingtheelementalmotionsinwork,thewaythesemotionswerecombinedtoformmethodsofoperation,andthebasictimeeachmotiontook.Theybelieveditwaspossibletodesignworkmethodswhosetimescouldbeestimatedinadvance,ratherthanrelyinguponobservation-basedtimestudies.FrankGilbreth,knownastheFatherofTimeandMotionStudies,filmedindividualphysicallabormovements.Thisenabledthemanagertobreakdownajobintoitscomponentpartsandstreamlinetheprocess.H