土木外文翻译.docx
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土木外文翻译.docx
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土木外文翻译
土木外文翻译
TheCostofBuildingStructure
1.Introduction
Theartofarchitecturaldesignwascharacterizedasoneofdealingcomprehensivelywithacomplexsetofphysicalandnonphysicaldesigndeterminants.Structuralconsiderationswerecastasimportantphysicaldeterminantsthatshouldbedealtwithinahierarchicalfashioniftheyaretohaveasignificantimpactonspatialorganizationandenvironmentalcontroldesignthinking.
Theeconomicalaspectofbuildingrepresentsanonphysicalstructuralconsiderationthat,infinalanalysis,mustalsobeconsideredimportant.Costconsiderationsareincertainwaysaconstrainttocreativedesign.Butthisneednotbeso.Ifsomethingisknownoftherelationshipbetweenstructuralandconstructivedesignoptionsandtheircostofimplementation,itisreasonabletobelievethatcreativitycanbeenhanced.Thishasbeenconfirmedbytheauthors’observationthatmostenhanced.Thishasbeen
confirmedbytheauthors’observationthatmostcreativedesigninnovationssucceed
undercompetitivebiddingandnotbecauseofunusualowneraffluenceasthefewpublicizedcasesofextravagancemightleadonetobelieve.Onecouldevensaythatadesignerwhoistrulycreativewillproducearchitecturalexcellencewithintheconstraintsofeconomy.Especiallytoday,wefindthatthereisaneedtorecognizethateleganceandeconomycanbecomesynonymousconcepts.
Therefore,inthischapterwewillsetforthabriefexplanationoftheparametersofcostanalysisandthemeansbywhichdesignersmayevaluatetheoveralleconomicimplicationsoftheirstructuralandarchitecturaldesignthinking.
Thecostofstructurealonecanbemeasuredrelativetothetotalcostofbuildingconstruction.Or,sincethetotalconstructioncostisbutapartofatotalprojectcost,onecouldincludeadditionalconsiderationforland(10,20percent),financeand
interest(100,200percent),taxesandmaintenancecosts(ontheorderof20percent).Butadiscussionoftheseso-calledarchitecturalcostsisbeyondthescopeofthisbook,andwewillfocusonthecostofconstructiononly.
Ontheaverage,purelystructuralcostsaccountforabout25percentoftotalconstructioncosts,Thisissobecauseithasbeentraditionaltodiscriminatebetween
purelystructuralandotherso-calledarchitecturalcostsofconstruction.Thus,intraditionwefindthatarchitecturalcostshavebeentakentobethosethatarenotnecessaryforthestructuralstrengthandphysicalintegrityofabuildingdesign.
“Essentialservices”formsathirdconstructioncostcategoryandreferstothe
provisionofmechanicalandelectricalequipmentandotherservicesystems.Ontheaverage,theseservicecostsaccountforsome15to30percentofthetotalconstructioncost,dependingonthetypeofbuilding.Mechanicalandelectricalreferstothecostofprovidingforair-conditioningequipmentandhemeansonairdistributionaswellasotherservices,suchasplumbing,communications,andelectricallightandpower.
Thesalientpointisthatthisbreakdownofcostssuggeststhat,uptonow,anaverageofabout45to60percentofthetotalcostofconstructingatypicaldesignsolutioncouldbeconsideredasarchitectural.Butthispictureisrapidlychanging.Withhighinterestcostsandascarcityofcapital,clientgroupsaredemandingleanerdesigns.Therefore,onemayconcludethattherearetwoapproachesthedesignermaytaketowardsinfluencingtheconstructioncostofbuilding.
Thefirstapproachtocostefficiencyistoconsiderthatwhereverarchitecturalandstructuralsolutionscanbeachievedsimultaneously,apotentialforeconomyisevident.Sincecurrenttrendsindicateareluctancetoallocatelargeportionsofaconstructionbudgettopurelyarchitecturalcosts,thisapproachseemsalogicalnecessity.But,evenwheremoneyisavailable,anyuseofstructuretoplayabasicarchitecturalrolewillallowthenonstructuralbudgettobeappliedtofulfillotherarchitecturalneedsthatmightnormallyhavetobeappliedtofulfillotherarchitecturalneedsthatmightnormallyhavetobecutback.Thesecondapproachachieveseconomythroughanintegrationofserviceandstructuralsubsystemstoroundoutone’sefforttoproducea
totalarchitecturalsolutiontoabuildingdesignproblem.
Thefinalpricingofaprojectbytheconstructororcontractorusuallytakesadifferentform.Thecostsarebrokendowninto
(1)costofmaterialsbroughttothesite,
(2)costoflaborinvolvedineveryphaseoftheconstructionprocess,(3)costofequipmentpurchasedorrentedfortheproject,(4)costofmanagementandoverhead,and(5)profit.Thearchitectorengineerseldomfollowssuchanaccuratepathbutshould
perhapskeepinmindhowtheactualcostofastructureisfinallypricedandmadeup.
Thus,thepercentaveragesstatedaboveareobviouslycrude,buttheycansufficetointroducethenatureofthecostpicture.Thefollowingsectionswilldiscusstherangeoftheseaveragesandthenproceedtoadiscussionofsquarefootagecostsandvolume-basedestimatesforuseinroughapproximationofthecostofbuildingastructuralsystem.
2.PercentageEstimates
Thetypeofbuildingprojectmayindicatetherangeofpercentagesthatcanbeallocatedtostructuralandothercosts.Asmightbeexpected,highlydecorativeorsymbolicbuildingswouldnormallydemandthelowestpercentageofstructuralcostsascomparedtototalconstructioncost.Inthiscasethestructuralcostsmightdropto10,
15percentofthetotalbuildingcostbecausemoremoneyisallocatedtotheso-calledarchitecturalcosts.Onceagainthisimpliesthatthesymboliccomponentsareconceivedindependentofbasicstructuralrequirements.However,wherestructureandsymbolismaremore-or-lesssynthesized,aswithachurchorCathedral,thestructuralsystemcostcanbeexpectedtobesomewhathigher,say,15and20percent(ormore).
Attheotherendofthecostscalearetheverysimpleandnonsymbolicindustrialbuildings,suchaswarehousesandgarages.Inthesecases,thenonstructuralsystems,suchasinteriorpartitionwallsandceilings,aswillasmechanicalsystems,arenormallyminimal,asisdecoration,andthereforethestructuralcostscanaccountfor60to70percent,even80percentofthetotalcostofconstruction.
Buildingssuchasmedium-riseofficeandapartmentbuildings(5,10stories)occupy
themedianpositiononacostscaleatabout25percentforstructure.Lowandshort-spanbuildingsforcommerceandhousing,say,ofthreeorfourstoriesandwithspansofsome20or30ftandsimpleerectionrequirements,willyieldstructuralcostsof15,20percentoftotalbuildingcost.
Special-performancebuildings,suchaslaboratoriesandhospitals,representanothercategory.Theycanrequirelongspansandamorethanaverageportionofthetotalcostswillbeallocatedtoservices(i.e.,30,50percent),withabout20percentgoingforthe
purelystructuralcosts.Tallofficebuilding(15storiesormore)and/orlong-span
buildings(say,50to60ft)canrequireahigherpercentageforstructuralcosts(about30to35percentofthetotalconstructioncosts),withabout30to40percentallocatedtoservices.
Inmycase,thesepercentagesaretypicalandcanbeconsideredasameasureofaverageefficiencyindesignofbuildings.Forexample,ifalow,short-spanandnonmonumentalbuildingweretobebidat30percentforthestructurealone,onecouldassumethatthestructuraldesignmaybecomparativelyuneconomical.Ontheotherhand,thearchitectshouldbeawareoftheconfusingfactthateconomicalbidsdependonthepracticalabilityofboththedesignerandthecontractortointerpretthedesignandconstructionrequirementssothatalowbidwillensue.Progressinstructuraldesignisoftenlimitedmorebythedesigner’sorcontractor’slackofexperience,imagination,and
absenceofcommunicationthanbytheideaofthedesign.Ifacontractorisuncertain,hewilladdcoststohedgetheriskhewillbetaking.Itisforthisreasonthatboththearchitectandtheengineershouldbewell-versedintheareaofconstructionpotentialsifinnovativedesignsatetobecompetitivelybid.Attheleastthearchitectmustbecapableofworkingcloselywithimaginativestructuralengineers,contractorsandevenfabricatorswhereverpossibleevenifthearchitectureisveryordinary.Efficiencyalwaysrequiresknowledgeandaboveallimagination,andtheseareessentialwhendesignsareunfamiliar.
Theforegoingpercentagescanbehelpfulinapproximatingtotalconstructioncostsiftheassumptionismadethatstructuraldesignisatleastofaverage(oftypical)efficiency.Forexample,ifatotalofficebuildingconstructioncostbudgetis,
5,000,000,and25percentisthe“standard”tobeusedforstructure,aprojected
structuralsystemshouldcostnomorethan,1,250,000.Ifaveryefficientdesignwere
realized,say,at80percentofwhatwouldbegivenbythe“average”efficientdesign
estimatestatedabovethesavings,(20percent),wouldthenbe,250,000or5percentof
totalconstructioncosts,5,000,000.Ifthe,5,000,000figureiscommitted,thenthe
savingsof,250,000couldbeappliedtoexpandthebudgetfor“other”costs.
Allthissuggeststhatcreativeintegrationofstructural(andmechanicalandelectrical)designwiththetotalarchitecturaldesignconceptcanresultineitherareductionin
purelyconstructiondesignconceptcanresultineitherareductioninpurelyconstructioncostsormorearchitectureforthesamecost.Thus,thedegreeofsuccesspossibledependsonknowledge,cleverness,andinsightfulcollaborationofthedesignersandcontractors.
Theabovediscussionisonlymeanttogivethereaderanoverallperspect
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