Criteria for equitable allocations The heart of international water conflict.docx
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Criteria for equitable allocations The heart of international water conflict.docx
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CriteriaforequitableallocationsTheheartofinternationalwaterconflict
Criteriaforequitableallocations:
Theheartofinternationalwaterconflict
AaronT.Wolf
NaturalResourcesForum.Vol.23#1,February1999.pp.3-30.
KeyWords:
waterallocations,transboundarywaters,waterdisputeresolution
Shorttitle:
Transboundarywaterallocations.
Abstract
Attheheartofmostinternationalwaterconflictsisthequestionof�equitable�allocations,criteriaforwhicharevagueandoftencontradictory. However,applicationofanequitablewater-sharingagreementalongthevolatilewaterwaysoftheglobeisaprerequisitetohydropoliticalstability. Thispaperexploresthequestionofequitymeasuresforwater-sharingagreementsinthecontextofglobalhydropoliticsandisdividedintothreeparts. Thefirstsectionprovidesabriefsummaryofthegeneralprinciplesofequitableallocations. Theseincludethegeneral"rights-based"criteriaforallocationswhichfindfavorinthelegalrealm,generallyrelyingonrelativehydrographyorchronologyofuse,andthe"efficiency-based"criteriaofeconomics. ThesecondsectiondescribesthepracticeofwaterresourcesallocationsasexemplifiedintheTransboundaryFreshwaterDisputeDatabase--acomputerizeddatabaseof145treatiesrelatingtointernationalwaterresourcescompiledatOregonStateUniversity;49ofthesetreatiesdelineatespecificwaterallocations.
Thethirdsectioncontraststheprinciplesandpracticeofwaterequity. Whatisnoticeableinreadingthroughthepracticeofwaterconflictresolution,asdocumentedinthese49treaties,isjusthowrarelythegeneralprinciplesareexplicitlyinvoked,particularlytheextremeprinciplesofabsolutesovereigntyorabsoluteriverainintegrity. Manyofthetreatiessimplydividewaterequallybetweenriparians,somedividethebenefitsderivedfromthewatersequally--notatallthesamething. Mostfavorexistinguses,and/orguaranteestodown-streamriparians;theupstreamriparianisfavoredonlyrarely. Oneinterestingpatternwhichemerges,isthatwhilemanyinternationalwaternegotiationsbeginwithdifferinglegalinterpretationsofrights,whethermeasuredbyhydrographyorchronology,theyoftenshiftrathertoaneeds-basedcriteriaforwaterallocations,asmeasuredbysomemutuallyagreeableparametersuchasirrigablelandorpopulation. Mostly,oneisstruckbythecreativityofthenegotiatorsinaddressingspecificlanguagetoeachveryspecificlocalsettingandconcerns.
Acknowledgments
FundingforthisresearchwasprovidedbytheUSInstituteofPeace,Grant#174-95S. IamtremendouslygratefultotheInstituteforitsassistance,asIamtoMaeStatiusMullerandMiekeHendriks,myhostsandguidesattheInternationalCourtofJusticeinTheHagueduringthesummerof1996. IoweaparticulardebtofgratitudetoJesseHamner,myresearchassistantattheUniversityofAlabama,forhisconscientiousworkonourtreatycollection. Severalcolleaguesreadandmadehelpfulcommentsonearlierdrafts,includingJoeDellapenna,ArielDinar,JimWescoat,andGilbertWhite--Iamtremendouslygratefulfortheirtimeandefforts,asIamtotwoanonymousreviewers. MentionshouldalsobemadeofthetremendousstridestheUNFoodandAgricultureOrganizationhasmadeincollectingandcataloguingwater-relatedtreaties--muchofthisstudycouldnothavebeenaccomplishedwithouttheircollections.
THEPAPER
Table1:
UniqueAllocationPractices
Table2:
ExamplesofNeeds-BasedAllocations
Table3:
PrioritizingUse
Annex1:
InternationalTreatiesWhichDelineateWaterAllocations
FOOTNOTES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Introduction
Asglobalpopulationscontinuetogrowexponentially,andasenvironmentalchangethreatensthequantityandqualityofnaturalresources,theabilityfornationstopeacefullyresolveconflictsoverinternationallydistributedwaterresourceswillincreasinglybeafactorinstableandsecureinternationalrelations. Therearecloseto261internationalrivers,coveringalmosthalfofthetotallandsurfaceoftheglobe,anduntoldnumbersofsharedaquifers(Wolfetal.forthcoming). WaterhasbeenacauseofpoliticaltensionsbetweenArabsandIsraelis;IndiansandBangladeshis;AmericansandMexicans;andalltenriparianstatesoftheNileRiver. Wateristheonlyscarceresourceforwhichthereisnosubstitute,overwhichthereispoorly-developedinternationallaw,andtheneedforwhichisoverwhelming,constant,andimmediate.
Theseresourceconflictswillgaininfrequencyandintensityaswaterresourcesbecomerelativelymorescarceandtheirusewithinnationscannolongerbeinsulatedfromimpactingonone'sneighbors. Ithasbeensuggestedthatmoreconsciousattentiontotheartandscienceofnegotiation,mediationandarbitrationcanprovideusefulinsightsforresolvingtheseconflictswithoutrecoursetothelimitedsolutionspossibleininternationalcourtsoflawor,worse,thedevastatingpossibilityofarmedconflict.
Thecentralissueattheheartoftheinternationalwaterquantitydisputesisthefactthattherearenointernationallyacceptedcriteriaforallocatingsharedwaterresources,ortheirbenefits.
(1) Thequestionsconsidered,althoughusuallydealtwithwithintherealmsoflaworeconomics,areinherentlygeographical(Karan1961):
Canonegeneralizeacodeofconductforlocations(watersheds)whicharebynaturehydrologically,politically,andculturallyunique(White1957)?
Howdoesonedevelopguidelinesforallocatingavitalresourcewhichismobile,whichfluctuatesintimeandinspace,andwhichignorespoliticalboundaries?
Thispaperbeginswithadescriptionofcriteriaforwater-sharingwhichhaveevolvedovertimewithinlegalandeconomicframeworks,andtheirstrengthsandweaknesses. Thisisfollowedbythecontrastbetweenthesegeneralprinciplesandthepracticeofallocatingwater,asexemplifiedintransboundarywatertreaties. TheTransboundaryFreshwaterDisputeDatabaseincludesacollectionof145watertreaties--49ofthosedelineatespecificwaterallocationstoco-riparians. Trendsintreatypracticeandtherelativeweightsofgeneralprinciplesandtheuniquelocalsettingarethendescribed.
Criteriaforwaterallocations:
Generalprinciples
Attheheartofwaterconflictmanagement,isthequestionof"equity." Avagueandrelativeterminanyevent,criteriaforequityareparticularlydifficulttodetermineinwaterconflicts,whereinternationalwaterlawisambiguousandoftencontradictory,andnomechanismexiststoenforceprincipleswhichareagreed-upon. However,applicationofan"equitable"water-sharingagreementalongthevolatilewaterwaysoftheworldisaprerequisitetohydropoliticalstabilitywhich,finally,couldhelppropelpoliticalforcesawayfromconflictinfavorofcooperation. Ittookdecadesoftensenegotiations,forexample,toreachaccordsontheDanube,Indus,Ganges,andJordanRivers,whiletalkscontinueinfitsandstartsalongtheParana,theNileandtheTigris-Euphrates. Thissectiondescribessomemeasuresofwater-sharingequitywhichdoexist,theirstrengths,andtheirweaknesses,inthecontextofglobalhydropolitics.
A.InternationalWaterLaw
(2)
AccordingtoCano(1989,168),internationalwaterlawdidnotsubstantiallybegintobeformulateduntilafterWorldWarI. Sincethattime,organsofinternationallawhavetriedtoprovideaframeworkforincreasinglyintensivewateruse,focusingongeneralguidelineswhichcouldbeappliedtotheworld'swatersheds. Thesegeneralprinciplesofcustomarylaw,codifiedandprogressivelydevelopedbyadvisorybodiesandprivateorganizations,aretermed"softlaw,"andarenotintendedtobelegallybinding,butcanprovideevidenceofcustomarylawandmayhelpcrystallizethatlaw. Whileitistemptingtolooktotheseprinciplesforclearandbindingrules,itismoreaccuratetothinkintermsofguidelinesfortheprocessofconflictresolution:
"(T)heprinciples(ofcustomarylaw)themselvesderivefromtheprocessandtheoutcomesoftheprocessratherthanprescribeeithertheprocessoritsoutcome"(Dellapenna,personalcommunication1997).
Theconceptofa"drainagebasin,"forexample,wasacceptedbytheInternationalLawAssociation(ILA)intheHelsinkiRulesof1966,whichalsoprovidesguidelinesfor�reasonableandequitable�sharingofacommonwaterway(Caponera1985). ArticleVlistsnofewerthanelevenfactorswhichmustbetakenintoaccountindefiningwhatis�reasonableandequitable.�(3) Thereisnohierarchytothesecomponentsof�reasonableuse;�rathertheyaretobeconsideredasawhole. OneimportantshiftinlegalthinkingintheHelsinkiRulesisthattheyaddresstherightto�beneficialuse�ofwater,ratherthattowaterperse(Housen-Couriel1994,10). TheHelsinkiRuleshaveexplicitlybeenusedonlyoncetohelpdefinewateruse--theMekongCommitteehasusedtheHelsinkiRulesdefinitionof"reasonableandequitableuse"informulationoftheirDeclarationofPrinciplesin1975,althoughnospecificallocationsweredetermined.(4)
WhentheUnitedNationsconsideredtheHelsinkiRulesin1970,objectionswereraisedbysomenationsastohowinclusivetheprocessofdraftinghadbeen. Inadditionand,accordingtoBiswas(1993),moreimportantly,somestates(Brazil,Belgium,China,andFrance,forinstance)objectedtotheprominenceofthedrainagebasinapproach,whichmightbeinterpretedasaninfringementonanation'ssovereignty. Others,notablyFinlandandtheNetherlands,arguedthatawatershedwasthemost"rationalandscientific"unittobemanaged. Othersarguedthat,giventhecomplexitiesanduniquenessofeachwatershed,generalcodif
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