胡壮麟 Chapter 11.docx
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胡壮麟Chapter11
Chapter11
LinguisticsandLanguageTeaching
⏹Appliedlinguistics
⏹Theoreticalviewsoflanguageexplicitlyorimplicitlyinformtheapproachesandmethodsadoptedinlanguageteaching.
⏹Linguistics,asthescienceoflanguage,shouldbeoffundamentalimportanceforteachersoflanguage.
⏹AccordingtoJoMcDonough,ateacherwhoisabletoexplainsomelinguisticfeatureswouldhaveastrongerpositionthanonewhohandlestheargumentbyusingauthority–“it’slikethat”,“it’sanexception”,or“it’slessformal”.
1.Linguisticsandlanguagelearning
⏹Manylanguagelearningtheoriesareproposedbasedoncertainlinguistictheories.
⏹Infact,knowledgeinlinguisticsliesattherootofunderstandingwhatlanguagelearnerscanlearn,howtheyactuallylearnandwhattheylearnultimately.
⏹AsRodEllispointsout,“whereasmuchoftheearlierworkfocusedonthelinguisticand,inparticular,thegrammatical-propertiesoflearnerlanguageandwaspsycholinguisticinorientation,laterworkhasalsoattendedtothepragmaticaspectsoflearnerlanguageand,increasingly,hasadoptedasociolinguisticperspective.
⏹Althoughcertainlanguagelearners(e.g.,advancedlearnersandstudentsmajoringaforeignlanguage)certainlybenefitfromaknowledgeoflinguistics,itisnotsensibletorecommendthemajorityoflanguagelearnerstostudylinguisticswhiletheyarestillstrugglingwiththetaskoflearningthelanguageitself.
1.1Grammar
⏹Asacompromisebetweenthe“purelyform-focusedapproaches”andthe“purelymeaning-focused”approaches,arecentmovementcalledfocusonformseemstotakeamorebalancedviewontheroleofgrammarinlanguagelearning.
FocusonForm
⏹Althoughlanguagelearningshouldgenerallybemeaning-focusedandcommunication-oriented,itisstillnecessaryandbeneficialtofocusonformoccasionally.
⏹Focusonformoftenconsistsofanoccasionalshiftofattentiontolinguisticcodefeatures—bytheteacherand/oroneormorestudents—triggeredbyperceivedproblemswithcomprehensionorproduction.
UniversalGrammar
⏹TwovariablesconcerningtheamenabilityoflanguageelementstofocusonformaretherelevanceofUniversalGrammar(UG)andthecomplexityoflanguagestructures.
⏹Accordingtotheadvocatesoffocusonform,ifanL2structureispartofUG,theamenabilityishigh;otherwise,theamenabilityislow.
⏹TheproblemisthatnooneknowsforsurewhatexactlyispartofUG.Itisherethatthestudyoflinguisticscomesintoplay.
⏹ThestudyofUG,whichisoftenconsideredasthetheoryforthesakeoftheory,isnowneededinlanguagelearningresearchinthemostpracticalsense.
⏹ThestudyofUGhasattractedconsiderableattentionfrommanysecondlanguageacquisitionresearchersbecauseknowledgeoflinguisticuniversalsmayhelptoshapeL2acquisitioninanumberofways.
⏹Forexample,itcanprovideexplanationsfordevelopmentalsequencesandlanguagetransfer.
Structuralcomplexity
⏹Itcanbeassumedthatlesscomplexstructureshavehigheramenability,butcomplexityishardtodefine.
⏹Formallysimplestructurescanbefunctionallycomplexandformallycomplexitemsarenotnecessarilyfunctionallycomplex.
⏹Againweresorttolinguisticsinordertohaveabetterunderstandingofthecomplexityoflanguagestructures.
Grammar-basedteaching
⏹Grammar-translationmethod
⏹Audiolingualmethod
⏹Situationallanguageteaching
1.2Input
⏹Languagelearningcantakeplacewhenthelearnerhasenoughaccesstoinputinthetargetlanguage.
⏹Thisinputmaycomeinwrittenorspokenform.
⏹Inthecaseofspokeninput,itmayoccurinthecontextofinteractionorinthecontextofnon-reciprocaldiscourse.
⏹Viewsdivergegreatlyastowhatkindofinputshouldbeprovidedforlanguagelearners.
⏹Authenticinput
⏹Comprehensibleinput(Krashen):
i+1
⏹Premodifiedinput
⏹Interactivelymodifiedinput:
tendstodoabetterjob
Input-basedteaching
⏹Directmethod
⏹Naturalapproach
⏹Totalphysicalresponse
⏹Communicativeapproach
⏹Communitylanguagelearning(CLL)
⏹Suggestopedia
⏹Silentway
Suggestopedia:
LearnWhileYouSleep!
⏹TheBulgarianphysicianGeorgiLozanovdevisedalanguagelearningmethodcalledSuggestopedia.
CalebGattegno’sSilentWay
⏹Thisisachartcontainingacertainnumberofdifferentcolouredrectangles;eachcolourcorrespondstoasoundinthelanguage.
⏹TheFidelisasetofchartspresentingallthepossiblespellingsofeachsoundofthelanguage.
⏹Oneofthe12wordchartsonwhichthefunctionalwordsofthelanguageareprintedincolor.
1.3Interlanguage—output
⏹Thetypeoflanguageconstructedbysecondorforeignlanguagelearnerswhoarestillintheprocessoflearningalanguageisoftenreferredtoasinterlanguage.
⏹Itisoftenunderstoodasalanguagesystembetweenthetargetlanguageandthelearner’snativelanguage.
⏹Interlanguageisadynamiclanguagesystem,whichisconstantlymovingfromthedepartureleveltothenative-likelevel.
⏹Canbedoneintwoways:
⏹investigatingthepsychological,biologicalorneurologicalmechanismsinvolvedintheproductionofinterlanguage;
⏹investigatingthelinguisticfeaturesofinterlanguage.
⏹Concerningthelinguisticfeaturesofinterlanguage,thefollowingquestionscanbeasked:
⏹Linguistically,howisinterlanguageingeneraldifferentfromthetargetlanguageorthenativelanguage?
⏹Inwhatwayislowerlevelinterlanguagedifferentfromhigherlevelinterlanguage?
⏹Howistheinterlanguagesystemusedtoconveymeaning?
Constructivism
⏹Language(oranyknowledge)issociallyconstructed.
⏹Learnerslearnlanguagebycooperating,negotiatingandperformingallkindsoftasks.
⏹Inotherwords,theyconstructlanguageincertainsocialandculturalcontexts.
2.LinguisticsandLanguageTeaching
⏹Linguisticstheoriesinfluenceourgeneralorientationinapproachestolanguageteaching.
⏹Linguisticknowledgehelpsteacherstobetterexplainthespecificlanguageitemstheyteach.
2.1Discourse-basedview
⏹Linguisticpatternsexistacrossstretchesoftext.
⏹Thesepatternsoflanguageextendbeyondthewords,clausesandsentences,whichhavebeenthetraditionalconcernofmuchlanguageteaching.
⏹Focusesoncompletespokenandwrittentextsandonthesocialandculturalcontextsinwhichsuchlanguageoperates.
⏹Accordingly,itaimsatdevelopingdiscoursecompetence,similartothewell-knownconceptofcommunicativecompetence.
Communicativecompetence
⏹DellHymes
⏹Whatalearnersknowsabouthowalanguageisusedinparticularsituationsforeffectiveandappropriatecommunication.
⏹Includesknowledgeofthegrammarandvocabulary,knowledgeofrulesofspeaking,knowledgeofhowtouseandrespondtodifferenttypesofspeechactsandsocialconventions,andknowledgeofhowtouselanguageappropriately.
⏹Itisbelievedthatlanguagelearningwillsuccessfullytakeplacewhenlanguagelearnersknowhowandwhentousethelanguageinvarioussettingsandwhentheyhavesuccessfullycognizedvariousformsofcompetencesuchasgrammaticalcompetence(lexis,morphology,syntaxandphonology)andpragmaticcompetence(e.g.,speechacts).
⏹Inthecaseofforeign/secondlanguagelearning,languagelearnersareencouragedtodealwithaccomplishingactions,whicharethoughttohelpthemacquirethetargetlanguage.
⏹CommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)andTask-basedLanguageTeaching(TBLT)arethebestknownexamplesofsuchatheory.
⏹IntheCLTorTBLTclassroom,studentsareexpectedtolearnbyperformingtasks.
Task-based
⏹Twobroadtypesoftasks:
real-worldtasksandpedagogicaltasks.
⏹Areal-worldtaskisveryclosetosomethingwedoindailylifeorwork.
⏹Pedagogicaltasksarethoseactivitiesthatstudentsdointheclassroombutthatmaynottakeplaceinreallife.(informationgap)
Drawbacks
⏹Overemphasizestheroleofexternalfactorsintheprocessoflanguageacquisitionandgiveslittleimportancetointernallearningprocesses.
⏹Similartothebehavioristicviewoflanguageacquisitioninthatenvironmentalfactorsandinputareattheverycenterinattemptingtoexplicatetheacquisitionprocess.
⏹Overstressestheroleofknowledgeofcompetenceandfunctionsinacquiringalanguage,andhencefailstonoticeuniversalprinciplesthatguidelanguageacquisition.
2.2UniversalGrammar(UG)
⏹NoamChomsky
⏹Anativespeakerpossessesakindoflinguisticcompetence.
⏹Thechildisbornwithknowledgeofsomelinguisticuniversals.
⏹Whileacquiringhismothertongue,hecompareshisinnatelanguagesystemwiththatofhisnativelanguageandmodifieshisgrammar.
⏹Inputispooranddeficientintwoways.
⏹Itis“degenerate”becauseitisdamagedbyperformancefeaturessuchasslips,hesitationsorfalsestarts.Accordingly,theinputisnotanadequatebaseforlanguagelearning.
⏹Itisdevoidofgrammarcorrections.Itdoesnotnormallycontain“negativeevidence”,theknowledgefromwhichthelearnercouldexercisewhatis“not”possibleinagivenlanguage.
⏹AlthoughUGwasnotoriginallyproposedtoaccountforsecondlanguageacquisition,manyresearchersareworkingonitsimplicationforlanguagelearningandteaching.
⏹VivianCookwroteawholebooktoaccountforsecondlanguageacquisitionbasedonChomsky’slinguistictheory.
Drawbacks
⏹UG’sprimaryaimistoaccountforhowlanguageworks,notacquisition.
⏹UGisonlyconcernedwiththecoregrammaroflanguage(syntax).
⏹ThecommunicationfunctionisdiscardedinUG.
⏹Chomskyisconcernedonlywith‘competence’,therecanbel
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