人才流失外文文献翻译最新译文.docx
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人才流失外文文献翻译最新译文.docx
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人才流失外文文献翻译最新译文
文献出处:
SahayA.ReverseBrainDrain:
NewStrategiesbyDevelopedandDevelopingCountries[J]//GlobalDiasporasandDevelopment.SpringerIndia,2014:
183-201.
译文
ReverseBrainDrain:
NewStrategiesbyDevelopedand
DevelopingCountries
AnjaliSahay
Introduction
KarlMarxwouldbeamused.Helongedforthedaywhentheworkerswouldownthemeansofproduction.Nowtheydo.
Whileitistraditionallyarguedthatopennesstointernationalmigrationwillcauseaneffectivebraindrainforthesourcecountry,inthenewmillennium,thediscussiononbraindrainhasclearlymovedtothemoreoptimisticandrealisticdiscourseonbraincirculationandbraingainwithapositivenetreturnonhumancapital.
Braincirculationasatheorypositsthatanimmigrant’slocationisinsignificanttoday,asthesehavebecomeprofessionalandsocialnetworksthatlinknewimmigrantentrepreneurswiththeircounterpartsathome.Thesenewtransnationalcommunitiesprovidethesharedinformation,contacts,andtrustthatallowlocalproducerstoparticipateinanincreasinglyglobaleconomy.Andotherbraingainstrategiessuchasreturn,remittances,andotherpoliticallobbyingbenefits(Sahay2009)thathavebecomeclearlyvisibleinthetwenty-firstcentury.Sofar,internationalmobilityhasmostlybeenunderstoodasaunidirectionalphenomenonwithpeoplefrom‘peripheral’,orpoor,countriesseekingtosettlein‘core’,orwealthy,countriestypicallylocatedintheNorthernHemisphere(Altbach2004).
However,thetrendhasnowchangeddramaticallytoshowanincreasingmovementofreturneesofthesehighlyskilledprofessionalsandstudentsbacktothe‘peripheral’orpoorcountries.AndeventhoughtherateofreturnhasbeenconsistentlyhighforAsiancountriessuchasSouthKorea(Lee2010)andTaiwanandtraditionallylowforcountrieslikeChinaandIndia,thetrendisnowpickingupinbothofthesecountriesaswellwithexpatriatesseeingabenefitforthemselvesastheyreturnandseeequalopportunitiesintheirhomecountries.Asaresultofthesebenefitsofoutmigration,immigrationandemigrationpoliciesarecontinuallybeingadoptedbypolicymakersacrosstheglobetoretaintheirbestandthebrightestlabourandtalentpoolofthehighlyeducated.
Inthecaseofdevelopedcountries(DCs),UnitedStatesinparticular,immigrationremainsacontroversialtopic,withillegalimmigration,securityconcernsafterSeptember11attacks,demographicchangesandsocietalandculturalimpactstakingcentrestageandovershadowingthemoreimportanttopicofemployment-basedimmigrationthateventoday(DHS2010,YearbookofImmigrationStatisticsdata)remainsatbest14%ofalllegalimmigration.Andwhileeconomistshavearguedthat‘thattheUnitedStatesshouldeliminatequantitativerestrictionsonemployment-basedimmigrationasthereareobviouseconomicbenefitstoopeninguptheborderstointernationallabourwhoarehighlyskilled,talented,andeducated,legislativepolicieshavetraditionallyputnumericallimitsonthisformofimmigration’.
Currently,notingtheeconomicbenefitsandcontributionsofimmigrantpopulation(nowconsideredaspartofUShumancapital),thereisanincreasingemphasisinUSlegislativeprocesstowardsretainingthealreadypresenthigh-skilledimmigrantsandstudentswithadvanceddegreesfromleavingtheirshores.TheStartupVisaBilloriginatingintheUSSenatein2011isanimportantstepinthatdirection.Eitherbecauseofrestrictiveimmigrationpoliciesorthetediousimmigrationnaturalizationprocessorincreasedbenefitsandopportunitiesinthehomecountry,manyoftheseimmigrantpopulationsarenow‘returning’home.Consequently,braindrain,whichwasthepopularjargonofthetwentiethcenturycomingfromthelessdevelopedcountries(LDCs),hasbecomethejargonoftheDCswhoarenowcomplainingoftheirownbraindrainwithtrainedimmigrantpopulationschoosingthereturnoptionandleavingtheirshore.1
Ontheotherendofthespectrum,realizingtheattractivenessofitsdiasporacommunityintheformofeconomic,socialandevenpoliticalgains(Sahay2009,pp.157–193;Khadria1999),legislativepoliciesarebeingformulatedintheseso-calledLDCs(whicharenowinvariousstagesofdevelopmentalprocess)inacontinuousefforttoattracttheiroverseashigh-skilledentrepreneurstoreturnorreinvestintheirhomecountriescontributingtoanet‘braingain’forthehomecountry.‘Pull’factorssuchasculturalfamiliarityandfamilytiesalongwithpersonalbenefitsarestrongreasonsformanyreversemigrationtrends.Fromagenderedperspective,manyalsoreturnastherearelawsandrulesthatprohibitanimmigrants’spousetoworkinthehostcountry.Whiletheremaybepersonalandculturalreasonsforreturnwhichcannotbequantifiedinaneconomicperspective,thischapterwillmostlytracetheimportantlegislativedevelopmentsthathavetakenplaceinmanydevelopingcountries,particularlyAsia.TheInternationalOrganizationofMigrationhasclassifiedreasonsforreturnmigrationoccurringinthreedifferentways.
Returnmaybeclassifiedas:
1.Voluntarywithoutcompulsion,whenmigrantsdecideatanytimeduringtheirsojourntoreturnhomeattheirownvolitionandcost
2.Voluntaryundercompulsion,whenpersonsareattheendoftheirtemporaryprotectedstatus,rejectedforasylumorareunabletostayandchoosetoreturnattheirownvolition
3.Involuntary,asaresultoftheauthoritiesofthehoststateorderingdeportation(Singla2012)Inthischapter,Iwillbelookingatthefirstreasonmostlyandthesecondreason(suchaspersonswhoareatanendoftheirtemporarystay)asthemainreasonsforreturn.
WhyAsia?
NotwithstandingthemanycontributionsofimmigrantstotheUnitedStatesfromdifferentpartsoftheworld,thischapterwillfocusonAsianimmigrationintotheUnitedStatesandthereturnoftheseprofessionalstosomeoftheseAsiancountries.ThereasonforfocusingonAsiaisthatsince1965immigrationreformandparticularlysincethetechboomofthe1990s,Asiaasaregionhasremainedconsistentlyhighasasourcecontinentwithrespecttoemployment-basedimmigrationandeducation,twoofthemaincomponentsofhumancapital.Thetwenty-firstcenturyisalsocitedasan‘AsianCentury’withthegrowingimportanceofChinaandIndiaasemergingsuperpowers.Furthermore,asexplainedbymanyreturnstudiestoAsia,ReturnredefinesAsia’srelationswiththeworld.Historically,large-scalereturnmigrationsarealwaysrelatedtochangesininternationalrelations.Today,inmostpartsofAsia,returnisanenterprisingprojectinsteadofanexerciseduetonostalgia.ReturningtoChinaorIndiafromtheWest,forexample,isperceivedasa‘returntothefuture’—tobeaheadofglobalbusinessandtechnologycurves.Returneesaresignificantbecausetheactionofreturnreinforcesallegianceandloyalty,yetthereturneesareexpectedtorejuvenateandevenrevolutionizetheold.Returnenergizesnationalismintheglobalizingworld.(Singapore2007)Thischapterisatimelyresearchinthefieldofinternationalmigrationandinternationalrelationinthetwenty-firstcentury.Itfurthersourunderstandingofconceptssuchas‘braindrain’(primarilyassociatedwithLDCs)and‘braingain’(primarilyassociatedwithDCs)andalsoattemptstounderstandtheimportanceofhumancapitalasasourceofpowerforanystate(developedordeveloping)inthetwenty-firstcentury.Withinthisframework,theempiricalevidenceprovidedwillbefortheUnitedStatesasthedevelopedcountryandseveralAsiancountriessuchasIndia,China,SouthKoreaandSingaporeastheprototypedevelopingandnewlyemergingeconomies.Firstly,theoreticalconceptssuchashumancapitalandbraingainwillbediscussedtounderstandwhyemployment-basedandeducation-basedimmigrationareimportanttothehostcountry’seconomy.Second,thechapterwilltracethelegislativeprocesstowardsemployment-basedandeducation-basedimmigrationintheUnitedStates(mainlytowardsimmigrationfromAsia)andlaterlegislationsintryingtoharnessandretaintheirimmigrantpopulationfromleavingtheirshores.Third,thechapterwilltracelegislativepoliciesevolvedbysomedevelopingcountries(mostlyAsiancountriessuchasIndia,ChinaandSingapore)inattractingtheiroverseasnationalsseenasatalentpoolofindividualsbacktotheirhomecountries.Andtoconclude,thechaptertiesinallthesetrendstogiveusabetterunderstandingoftheinternationalmovementofpeoplebetweenAsiaandtheUnitedStatesandbraingainstrategiesforthetwenty-firstcentury.
ImmigrationreformhasalwaysstirredupadebateintheUnitedStates.WhentheDemocratswonthemajorityinboththeHouseandtheSenateinthe2005midtermelections,therewassomeanticipationthatthelegislatorswouldmoveforwardtheimmigrationreformprocess.‘Whentheimmigrationreformproposalbill1639failed(despitereceivingbipartisansupportmostnotablyfromSenatorTedKennedyandPresidentGeorgeW.Bush)itreflectedthegeneralindecisionandambivalenceonthepartofUSpolicymakersonthesubjectofimmigration’(BrothertonandKretsedemas2008,p.365).IntheUnitedStatesofAmerica,‘fewissuesaremorecontroversialthanimmigration’(West2010,pp.1–20).AsarguedbyDarrellWest(2010),thereisageneralconcernaboutimmigrationbecausetheyviewthematerialcostsofopendoorpoliciesasbroad-basedandthebenefitsasconcentrated.
AnumberofstudieshavebeenmadetoestimatethecostsandbenefitsofimmigrationtotheUnitedStates,see(Jacoby2004).Keepingasidethecostofculturalassimilationandthecostofsecuritythreats(especiallyafterSeptember11),mos
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