英语词汇学第七八章doc.docx
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英语词汇学第七八章doc
Chapter7 ChangesinWordMeaning
词义的演变
学习目标:
了解词义变化的必然性,词义变化的主要方式和原因。
考核要求:
本章共有两节
1.词义变化的方式/种类
识记以下术语的基本概念:
词义的扩大、词义的缩小、词义的升华、词义的降格
领会:
四种变化方式在英语词汇发展中的作用。
2.词义变化的原因
领会:
词义演变的原因
语言外部原因:
历史原因、阶级原因、心理原因。
语言内部原因:
缩略、借用、类推。
Alllanguageschangethroughtime——historicchange,hence diachronicstudiesoflanguage.
ModernEnglish—MiddleEnglish—OldEnglish
现代汉语—近代汉语—古代汉语:
比如,佛教中的“南无阿弥陀佛”,南无二字的语音变化
nan’wuornamo?
Languagechange:
allpartsofgrammarmaychange:
Soundchange 南无…
morphologicalchange莫须有。
thee
syntacticchange 不知何适?
vocabularychange additionofnewwords
lossofwords
changeinthemeaningofwords
l Soundchange
stan stone;ham,home;mice/i:
/,mice/ai/;mouse/u:
//au/;broke/br哦ken/;
l morphologicalchange:
thee——you;
l syntacticchange
Ilovetheenot→Idonotloveyou.
Hesawyounot→Hedidn’tseeyou.
l vocabularychange
Vocabularyisthemostunstableelementofalanguageasitisundergoingconstantchangesbothinformandcontent.
7.1FourmajorTypesofChanges词义变化的四种类型
识记基本概念:
7.1.1Extension/generalization语义扩展
Extensionreferstothewideningofwordmeaning
themeaningofawordbecomesbroader.
e.g. tailoncereferredto“thetailofahorse”,butnowitisusedtomean“thetailofanyanimal”.
holidayoriginallymeantholyday,i.e.,adayofreligioussignificance.Today,thiswordsignifiesanydayonwhichwedon’thavetowork.
So,tailandholidayhavewidenedtheirmeaning,fromspecifictogeneral.
7.1.2Narrowing:
isalsocalledspecialization语义变窄/专业化
Narrowingisaprocessbywhichawordofwidemeaningacquiresanarrowerorspecializedsense.
Inthecourseofseveralgenerations,semanticchangehasnarrowedthemeaningofawordtowhatitisinModernEnglish.
Forinstance,“hound”,whichusedtobethegeneraltermfor“dog”,hasbeennarrowedtoaspecialkindofdog.
Otherexamplesare
deer anyanimal→aparticularspecies
meat food→ediblepartofananimal
corn grain→aparticulargrain
wife woman→amarriedwoman
girl youngpersonofeithersex→femaleyoungperson
7.1.3Elevation语义提升
Elevationreferstotheprocessbywhichwordsrisefromhumblebeginningstopositionsofimportance,i.e.,changestheirmeaningfromloworhumbletosomethingagreeable,pleasant.
e.g.themeaningofnice,originallymeant“ignorant”,then“foolish”,nowelevatedtomean“delightful,pleasant”.
Otherexamplesare:
angel messenger→messengerofGod
fond foolish→affectionate
governor pilot→headofastate
minister servant→headofaministry
success result→goodresult
marshal&constable keeperofhorses→highrankingarmyofficer/policeman
7.1.4Degradation语义降格
Degradationorpejorationofmeaningistheoppositeofsemanticelevation.Itisaprocessinwhichwordsofgoodoriginfallintoillreputationornon-affectivewordscometobeusedinderogatorysense.
e.g.
boor peasant→rude,ill-manneredperson
wench countrygirl→aprostitute
villain personwhoworkedinavilla→evilorwickedperson
silly happy→foolish
criticize appraise→findfaultwith
另外,常见的语义变化还有:
Transfer语义转换
Semantictransfer(P140):
wordswhichwereusedtodesignateonethingbutlaterchangedtomeansth.elsehaveexperiencedtheprocessofsemanticchange.
4类语义转换
l Associatedtransfer联想转换
themeaningistransferredthroughassociation.
e.g.pursefor‘money’,dishfor‘food’,glassfor‘cup’.
腰包鼓起来了吗?
把好处装入自己的腰包
今年暑假我妹妹拣了个大皮夹子(股市、房市)。
l Transferbetweenabstractandconcretemeanings.
concrete→abstract:
具体向抽象转换
e.g.aftermath:
secondcropofgrassaftermowing→consequence,result
threat:
crowd,army人群、军队→威胁
apprehend:
takeholdof,arrest抓住、逮捕→understand理解、领悟
grasp抓住→understand掌握、领会
nitpick从身上挑虱子→挑剔、找小毛病
abstract→concrete抽象向具体转换
e.g.hope→Tomisthehopeofhismother.
Heistheprideoftheschool.
Thegovernmentissuedanorderforderequisitionoftransportation.
政府发布一项条令,发放原来被征用的车辆。
(抽象→具体)
l Transferbetweensubjectiveandobjectivemeanings.主观与客观之间的转换
e.g.pitiful‘fullofpity’(subjective)→deservingpity(objective)
hateful:
充满仇恨的、有敌意的(主观意义)→可恨的、讨厌的(modernEnglish:
客观意义)
painful:
painstaking,laborious苦干的、勤劳的(17st)
apainfulpreacher(acomplimentaryphrase)
→objectivemeaning:
使痛苦的、伤脑筋的
l Transferofsensations感官感觉的转换
suchasclear-sounding(sight-hearing),
loudcolors(hearingtosight),sweetmusic(tastetohearing).
l TransferofPropernounstocommonnouns专有名词转化为普通名词
e.g.DonJuan:
alegendaryfigureinSpain,anoblewhointentionallyplayaround
→aDonJuan一个调戏女性的人(aphilanderer)
Epicurus伊壁鸠鲁(aphilosopherofancientGreece,著名的无神论者,其人生观就是人生在世就是为了追求享受)。
→Epicurean:
享乐者、讲究饮食的人
Sandwich:
earl伯爵.赌棍gamester,tosavetime
7.2 Causesofchanges词义变化的原因
要求领会
Lexicalmeaningischangedtomeetthefunctionalneedsoflanguageusers.
Twomajorcauses
Extra-linguisticfactors
Linguisticfactors
7.2.1Extra-linguisticfactors语外因素:
历史、阶级和心理因素
historicalreason,Classreason,Psychologicalreason
l historicalreason:
ensuretraditionandcontinuity
Ullman(1977:
198):
languageismoreconservativethancivilization,marterialaswellasmoral.
Itisoftenthecasethatawordisretainedforanamethoughthemeaninghaschangedforthereferenthaschanged.
e.g.pen
car战争中使用的马拉的四轮马车→汽车automobile
computer:
apersonwhocomputes→electronicmachine
Increasedscientificknowledgeanddiscoveryalsocontributetothechangeofwordmeaning.
l Classreason:
theattitudesofclasseshavemadeinroadsintolexicalmeaninginthecaseofelevationordegradation.
l Psychologicalreason:
theassociatedtransferofmeaningandeuphemisticuseofwordsareoftenduetopsychologicalfactors.
Peoplechangewordmeaningowingtovariouspsychologicalmotives:
love,respect,courtesy,suspicion,pessimism,sarcasm,irony,contempt,hatred,etc.
b.Linguisticfactors
Thechangeofmeaningmaybecausedbyinternalfactorswithinthelanguagesystem.
Fourtypes:
Aphraseshortenedasonewordretainingthemeaningofthewhole.
Theinfluxofborrowingscausesmeaningchangeofsomewords.
Thecompetitionofnativewordsresultsinsemanticdivision.
Analogyalsocausessemanticchange.
l Ashortenedwordretainsthemeaningofthewhole.
e.g.gold→goldmedal
gas→coalgas
bulb→lightbulb
private→privatesoldier列兵(thelowestrankinarmy)
l Borrowingscausemeaningchangeofsomewords.
l competitionofnativewords
l Analogy
Exercises:
P146-7
Chapter8MeaningandContext
意义与语境(WordsinContext)
RevisionofChapter7
Fourmodesofword-meaningchangeare_____,____,___,and___.
Majorcausesofword-meaningchangeare____and____.
学习目标:
了解两种不同的语境,语境对词义的重要作用,能运用语境争取理解词义并猜测新词的意义。
考核要求:
本章共有两节
1. 语境的种类
识记:
非语言语境和两种语言语境
领会:
语境对词义的影响。
2. 语境的作用
领会:
语境如何消除歧义,限定所指和提供线索。
运用:
利用语境知识猜测词义。
Majorpointsinthischapter
l Typesofcontext
Extra-linguisticcontext
Linguisticcontext
l Theroleofcontext
Eliminationofambiguity
Indicationofreferents
Providingcluesforinferringword-meaning
Meaningandcontextaretwomainconceptsandresearchtopicsinpragmatics.Therefore,wecanseethatlexicologyiscloselyrelatedtoalmostallbranchesoflinguistics,includingpragmatics.
Pragmaticsisconcernedwiththestudyofmeaningascommunicatedbyaspeaker(orwriter)andinterpretedbyalistener(orreader)(Yule1996:
3).
Runtheegg-and-spoonrace
Runforthedoctor
Runforone’slife
Runfromdanger
8.1 Typesofcontext 语境的类型
Inanarrowsense,contextreferstothewords,clauses,sentencesinwhichawordappears.Thisislinguisticcontext.
语言语境,又称为上下文。
狭义上来讲,语境指的是某特定的词所出现的上下文,即它所在的句子、段落或更大的语篇单位。
但是,使用语言离不开一定的客观条件和背景,语言活动总是在特定的时间、特定的空间、特定的情景、特定的人之间进行的。
这种语言外的因素就是语外语境。
这是从广义上来说的。
e.g.
Hewasbornheretwentyyearsago.
Whodoes“he”referto?
Inabroadsense,contextincludesalsothephysicalsituation,i.e.extra-linguisticornon-linguisticcontext,whichembracesthepeople,time,place,andeventhewholeculturalbackground.语外语境、非语言语境
e.g.,
1.A:
Howishe?
B:
Acoupleofpillswillcurehim.
2.A:
How’she?
B:
Hewillbehospitalized.
3.A:
How’she?
B:
Anambulancemustbesentforatonce.
(basedonbackgroundinformation,threeresponsesareallpropriate.)
e.g.
4.A:
YouspeakbeautifulEnglish.
B:
Thankyou.Ihadverygoodteachersintheuniversity.
5.A:
YouspeakbeautifulEnglish.
B:
No,no.MyEnglishisverypoor.
(culturalbackground)
8.1.1 Extra-linguisticcontext语外语境
Non-linguisticcontext,contextofsituation,canhavegreatereffectonthemeaningofwords.情景语境
e.g.,P150.
e.g.,2.
Dickens“DavidCopperfield”:
MissTrotwood(toJanet,theservantofherfamily):
Janet!
Donkeys!
That’swhyitiscommontodifferentiatesentence-meaningandutterance-meaning.e.g.,
“Dog!
”
a. Thereisadogatthegate.We’dbetterkeepaway.
b. There’sadog!
c. Iorderyoutofire!
Extra-linguisticcontextalsoincludesculturalbackground,whichalsoinfluenceswordmeaning.语外语境包括文化背景,后者对词语的意义也有影响。
Membersofdifferentcultureslookdifferentlyattheworldaroundthem.Somebelievethatthephysicalworldisreal.Othersbelievethatitisjustanillusion.Somebelieveeverythingaroundthemispermanentwhileotherssayitistransient.Realityisnotthesameforallpeople.
e.g.differentmeaningof“饭”innorthernands
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