naturalism and impressionism.docx
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naturalism and impressionism.docx
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naturalismandimpressionism
TheRiseofModernSocialNovelinEngland
NATURALISMANDIMPRESSIONISM
1ThemodernsocialnovelarisesinEngland,asinFrance,intheperiodaround1830,andenjoysitsheydayintheturbulentyearsbetween1840and1850,whenthecountrystandsonthebrinkofrevolution.Here,too,itbecomesthemostimportantliteraryformofthegenerationwhichhascometoquestiontheaimsandstandardsofbourgeoissocietyandwhichwantstoexplainthesuddenriseandthreateningruinofit.ButintheEnglishnoveltheproblemsdiscussedaremoreconcrete,ofmoregeneralsignificance,lessintellectualisticandsophisticatedthanintheFrench;theauthors’standpointismorehumane,morealtruistic,but,atthesametime,moreconciliatoryandopportunistic.Disraeli,Kingsley,Mrs.GaskellandDickensareCarlyle’sfirstdisciplesandareamongthewriterswhoaccepthisideasmostreadily.Theyareirrationalists,idealists,interventionists,theyscoffatutilitarianismandnationaleconomy,condemnliberalismandindustrialism,andplacetheirnovelsattheserviceofthefightagainsttheprincipleof‘laissez-faire’andtheeconomicanarchywhichtheyderivefromthisprinciple.
②Before1830thenovelasavehicleofthiskindofsocialpropagandawasabsolutelyunknown,althoughinEnglandthemodernnovelhadbeen‘social’fromtheverybeginning,thatis,fromDefoeandFieldingonwards.ItwasmuchmoredirectlyanddeeplyconnectedwiththeessaysofAddisonandSteelethanwiththepastoralandlovenovelofSidneyandLyly,anditsfirstmastersownedtheirinsightintothecontemporarysituationandtheirmoralfeelingforthesocialproblemsofthedaytothestimuliwhichtheyhadreceivedfromjournalism.ItistruethatthisfeelingbecomesbluntedattheendofthefirstgreatperiodoftheEnglishnovel,butitwasbynomeanslost.Thenovelofterrorandmystery,whichtooktheplaceofFielding’sandRichardson’sworksinthepublicfavour,hadnodirectconnectionwiththefactsofsocietyorwithrealityingeneral,andinJaneAusten’snovelssocialrealitywasthesoilinwhichthecharacterswererooted,butinnosenseaproblemwhichthenovelistmadeanyattempttosolveorinterpret.
③Thenoveldoesnotbecome‘social’againuntilWalterScott,thoughinquiteadifferentsensefromwhatithadbeeninDefoe,Fielding,RichardsonorSmollett.InScottthesociologicalbackgroundisstressedmuchmoreconsciouslythaninhispredecessors;healwaysshowshischaractersastherepresentativesofasocialclass,butthepictureofsocietythathedrawsismuchmoreprogrammaticandabstractthaninthenoveloftheeighteenthcentury.HefoundsanewtraditionandisonlyverylooselyconnectedwiththeDefoe-Fielding-Smollettlineofdevelopment.ButDickens,thenearestheirofWalterScottand,aboveall,hissuccessorasthebeststory-tellerandthemostpopularauthorofhisage,resumesadirectconnectionwiththisline,forevenifheisapupilofScott—andwhoofthenovelistsofthefirsthalfofthecenturyisnot?
—nevertheless,thegenrethathecreatesismuchmoresimilartothepicaresqueformoftheoldwritersthantoScott’sdramaticmodeofwriting.Dickensisalsocloselyconnectedwiththeeighteenthcenturybyreasonofthemoralistic-didactictendencyofhisart;apartfromthepicaresquetraditionofFieldingandSterne,herevivesthephilanthropictrendofDefoeandGoldsmith,whichhadbeenequallyneglectedbyScott.Heoweshispopularitytotheresuscitationofboththeseliterarytraditionsandhemeetsthetasteofthenewreadingpublichalfwaybothbythepicaresquecolourfulnessandthesentimental-moralistictoneofhisworks.
④Between1816and1850anaverageofahundrednovelsappearinEnglandeveryyear,andthebookspublishedin1853,mostofwhicharenarrativeliterature,arethreetimesasmanyastheworksthathadappearedtwenty-fiveyearspreviously.Theincreaseinthereadingpublicintheeighteenthcenturywasconnectedwiththedevelopmentofthelendinglibraries;buttheymerelyledtoamorelivelyactivityamongpublishersanddidnotcontributeinanywaytothereductionofbookprices.Withtheirgrowingneeds,theyhelpedrathertostabilizethepricesonacomparativelyhighlevel.Thepriceofanovelintheusualthree-volumeeditionamountedtooneandahalfguineas,asumwhichonlyextremelyfewpeoplewereinapositiontopayforanovel.
⑤Hencethereadershipoflightfictionwasrestrictedinthemaintothesubscriberstolendinglibraries.Itwasnotuntilnovelsbegantobepublishedinmonthlyinstalmentsthatafundamentalchangeinthecompositionandsizeofthereadingpublictookplace.Paymentbyinstalments,eventhoughthisreducedthepriceonlybyathird,allowedmanypeople,whohadhardlyeverbeenabletobuybooksbefore,topurchasetheworksoftheirfavouriteauthors.Thepublicationofnovelsinmonthlynumbersrepresentedabook-sellinginnovation,whichwasinfundamentalaccordancewiththeintroductionoftheserialnovelandhadsimilarresultsbothsociologicallyandartistically.Thereturntothepicaresqueformofthenovelwasoneoftheseresults.
⑥Dickens,whosesuccessesalsomeanthetriumphofthenewmethodofpublication,enjoysalltheadvantagesandsuffersfromallthedisadvantagesconnectedwiththedemocratizationofliteraryconsumption.Theconstantcontactwithbroadmassesofthepublichelpshimtofindastylewhichispopularinthebestsenseoftheword;heisoneofthenonetoonumerousartistswhoarenotonlygreatandpopular,notmerelygreat,althoughtheyarepopular,butgreat,becausetheyarepopular.Totheloyaltyofthispublicandthefeelingofsecuritywithwhichtheaffectionofhisreadersinspireshim,heoweshisgrandepicstyle,theevennessofhislanguageandthatspontaneous,un-problematical,almostentirelyartlessmodeofcreation,whichisquiteunparalleledinthenineteenthcentury.Ontheotherhand,hispopularityonlypartlyexplainshisgreatnessasawriter,forAlexandreDumasandEugèneSuearejustaspopularashe,withoutbeinggreatinanysense.Andhisgreatnessexplainshispopularityevenless,forBalzacisincomparablygreater,justasvulgarandyetmuchlesssuccessful,althoughheproduceshisworksunderquitesimilaroutwardconditions.
⑦ThedisadvantagesofpopularityforDickensaremucheasiertoexplain.Fidelitytohisreaders,intellectualsolidaritywiththegreatmassesofsimplefollowers,andthedesiretomaintaintheaffectionofthisrelationshipproduceinhimabeliefintheabsoluteartisticvalueofthemethodswhichgodownwellwiththeemotionallyinclinedmassesand,consequently,alsoabeliefintheinfallibleinstinctandsoundnessofthegreatpublic’sunisonouslybeatingheart.Hewouldneverhaveadmittedthattheartisticqualityofaworkoftenstandsinaninverserelationshiptothenumberofpeoplewhofeelmovedbyit.Therearecertainmeansbywhichwecanallbemovedtotears,eventhoughweareafterwardsashamedofnothavingresistedthe‘universallyhuman’appealofthesemeans.ButweshednotearsoverthefateoftheheroesofHomer,Sophocles,Shakespeare,Corneille,Racine,Voltaire,Fielding,JaneAustenandStendhal,whereasinreadingDickenswefeelthesamethoughtless,complacentemotionswithwhichwereacttothefilmsoftoday.
⑧Dickensisoneofthemostsuccessfulwritersofalltimeandperhapsthemostpopulargreatwriterofthemodernage.Heis,atanyrate,theonlyrealwritersinceromanticismwhoseworkdidnotspringfromoppositiontohisage,norfromastrainedrelationshiptohisenvironment,butcoincidedabsolutelywiththedemandsofhispublic.HeenjoysapopularityforwhichthereisnoparallelsinceShakespeareandwhichapproachesnearesttotheideawehaveofthepopularityoftheoldmimesandminstrels.Dickensowesthetotalityandintegrityofhisworld-viewtothefactthathedoesnotneedtomakeanyconcessions,whenhespeakstohispublic,thathehasjustasnarrowamentalhorizon,justasundiscriminatingtasteandjustasartless,thoughincomparablyricher,animaginationashisreaders.
⑨Chestertonremarksthat,incontrasttoDickens,thepopularwritersofourdayalwaysfeeltheymustclimbdowntotheirpublic.Betweenthemandtheirreadersthereexistsjustaspainful,thoughquitedifferentlyconstitutedandmuchlessdeeplyfoundedabreachasbetweenthegreatwritersandtheaveragepublicoftheperiod.ThereisnoquestionofanysuchbreachinDickens.HeisnotonlythecreatorofthemostcomprehensivegalleryoffiguresevertohavepenetratedthegeneralconsciousnessandimaginativeworldoftheEnglishreadingpublic,hisinnerrelationshiptothesefiguresisthesameasthatofhispublic.Hisreaders’favoritesarealsohisfavoritesandhetalksoflittleNellorlittleDombeywiththesamefeelingsandinthesametoneasthemostharmlesslittlegrocerorthesimplestoldmaid.
⑩TheseriesoftriumphsbeganforDickenswithhisfirstfulllengthwork,thePickwickPapers,fortythousandcopiesoftheseparateinstalmentsofwhichweresoldfromthefifteenthnumberonwards.ThissuccessdeterminedthestyleofbooksellinginwhichtheEnglishfictionofthesucceedingquarterofacenturywastodevelop.Thepowerofattractionoftheauthor,whohadbecomefamousallofasudden,neverslackenedthroughouthiswholecareer.TheworldwasalwayshungryformoreandheworkedalmostasfeverishlyandbreathlesslyasBalzactomeettheenormousdemand.Thesetwocolossibelongtogether;theyareexponentsofthesameliteraryboom,theysupplythesamebook-hungrypublic,which,aftertheupheavalsofanagefilledwithrevol
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