八级备考语言学.docx
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八级备考语言学.docx
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八级备考语言学
八级备考语言学
Chapter1Introduction
Linguistics,Coreoflinguistics,Importantdistinctions,Language,Designfeaturesoflanguage,Functionsoflanguage
Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.Linguisticshasfirmlyestablisheditsplaceasamajorbranchofsocialscience.
Itincludesgeneral(theoretical)linguisticsandappliedlinguistics.
Generallinguistics-thestudyoflanguageasawhole,whichdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy.
AppliedLinguistics:
Inanarrowsense,itreferstotheaapplicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteaching,esp.theteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.
Inabroadsense,itreferstothefactthatfindingsinlinguisticstudiesareappliedtothepracticalproblems.Forexample,lexicology,translation,speechpathology,recoveryofspeechability;sociolinguistics,psycholinguistics,biolinguistics,computationallinguistics,stylistics,informationtheory,neurolinguistics,cognitivelinguistics,etc…
Mainbranchesoflinguistics:
Phonetics语音学,Phonology音位学,Morphology形态学,Syntax句法学,Semantics语义学,Pragmatics语用学
Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics:
prescriptivevs.descriptive,synchronicvs.diachronic,speechandwriting,langueandparole,competenceandperformance.
Prescriptivevs.descriptive:
规定性和描写性
Alinguisticstudyis“descriptive”ifitonlydescribesandanalysesthefactsoflanguage,and“prescriptive”ifittriestolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”languagebehavior.
Linguisticstudiesbeforethiscenturywerelargelyprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive.
Synchronicvs.diachronic:
共时和历时
Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeisasynchronicstudy(synchrony).Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy(diachrony).
Anessayentitled“OntheUseofTHE”maybesynchronic,iftheauthordoesnotrecallthepastofTHE,anditmayalsobediachronicifheclaimstocoveralargerangeorperiodoftimewhereinTHEhasundergonetremendousalteration.
Speechandwriting:
口语和书面语
•Thetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Speechisprimarybecause:
1.Itexistedlongbeforewritingsystemscameintobeing.Geneticallychildrenlearntospeakbeforelearningtowrite;2.Writtenformsjustrepresentinthiswayorthatthespeechsounds.
Writinggiveslanguagenewscopeandusesthatspeechdoesnothave:
1.Messagescanbecarriedthroughspacesothatpeoplecanwritetoeachother;
2.Messagescanbecarriedthoughtimesothatwecanreadthebooksinthepast;
3.Oralmessagesarereadilysubjecttodistortionwhilewritingmessagesallowandencouragerepeatedunalterablereading.
Mostmodernlinguisticanalysisisfocusedonspeech,differentfromgrammariansofthelastcentury.
Langueandparole:
语言和言语
F.deSaussure(Swisslinguist)referslanguetotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparoletotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.
Langue:
thesetofconventionsandruleslanguageusershavetoabideby,abstract,relativelystable.
Parole:
theconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules,concrete,variable.
Saussure:
alinguistshouldabstractlanguefromparole(todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguage).
Competenceandperformance:
语言能力和语言应用
AccordingtoN.Chomsky(Americanlinguist),competenceistheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactrealizationofhisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.
competence:
stable;performance:
influencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors
Chomsky:
alinguistshouldstudythecompetenceinsteadofperformance.
Saussure:
asociologicalviewoflangugelangue=amatterofsocialconventions
Chomsky:
psychologicalpointofviewcompetence=apropertyofthemindofeachindividual
Traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics
F.deSaussure1916CourseinGeneralLingusitics
Traditionalgrammar:
prescriptive,priorityofwrittenword,Latin-basedframework
Modernlinguistics:
descriptive,priorityofspoken,auniversalframework
Language
Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.
Itisasystem,becauselinguisticelementsarearrangedaccordingtorules,ratherthanrandomly.
Itisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenawordandtheobjectitrefersto.Thisexplainsandisexplainedbythefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferent“books”andalsoexplainsthesymbolicnatureoflanguage:
wordsarejustsymbols.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.”–RomeoandJuliet
Itisvocalbecausethesoundorspeechistheprimarymediumforallhumanlanguages.Writingsystemscamemuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Thefactthatsmallchildrencanonlylearntospeakbeforetheywritealsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimarilyvocal,ratherthanwriting.
Theterm“human”inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman-specific.
DesignFeatures(识别特征):
arbitrariness,duality,productivity,displacement,culturaltransmissionandinterchangeability.
Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethattellthedifferencebetweenhumanlanguageandanysystemofanimalcommunication.
“Nomatterhoweloquentlyadogmaybark,hecannottellyouthathisparentswerepoorbuthonest.”ByBertrandRussell.
Arbitrariness:
任意性Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Arbitrarinessatthesyntacticlevel句法上的任意性Differentlanguageshavedifferentwaystoconstructthewordsintoasentence(syntax).
Duality:
双层性twosetsofstructureorpatterning
Atthelowerlevel,thereisastructureofsounds,meaninglessbythemselves.Secondaryunits(sounds)底层结构
Thesoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning(morphemes,words),whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.Primaryunits(meaning)上层结构
Productivity/creativity:
能产性、创造性Itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.
Partiallyoriginatingfromitsduality;andinanothersense,languagehasthepotentialtocreateendlesssentences.
Uniquetohumanlanguage.
Productivitynevergoesoutsidethelanguage,thusalsocalled“rule-boundcreativity”(byN.Chomsky).
Displacement:
不受时空限制性Itreferstocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.
Itmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentatthemomentsofcommunication.(Hu)Itgiveshumanbeingsthepowertohandlegeneralizationsandabstractions.
Culturaltransmission:
文化传递性Whilewewerebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemisnotgeneticallytransmitted,buthavetobetaughtandlearned.
Interchangeability:
互换性Anyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.Wecansay,andonotheroccasionscanreceiveandunderstandmessages.Itisturn-takingthatmakessocialcommunicationpossibleandacceptable.
FunctionsofLanguage
Descriptivefunction,orcognitive/referential/propositionalfunctionisassumedtobethemainfunctionoflanguage.Itisthefunctiontoconveyfactualinformation,whichcanbeassertedordenied,andinsomecasesevenverified.
Expressivefunction,oremotiveorattitudinalfunction,suppliesinformationabouttheuser’sfeelings,preferences,prejudicesandvalues.
Socialfunction,orinterpersonalfunction,servestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople.
SpeechElementsandFunction
Russian-bornstructurallinguistRomanJakosonidentifiessixelementsofaspeecheventandrelateseachoneofthemtoonespecificfunction.
addresser---emotive感情功能addressee---conative意动功能context---referential指称功能
message---poetic诗意性功能contact---phaticcommunion应酬功能code--metalinguistic元语功能
addresser---emotive感情功能Theaddresserexpresseshisattitudetothetopicorsituationofcommunication.
e.g.Ihatewhattheyareplanningforme.
addressee---conative意动功能Theaddresseraimstoinfluencetheaddressee’scourseofactionorwaysofthinking.
e.g.Whynotgoandseeanotherdoctor?
context---referential指称功能Theaddresserconveysamessageorinformation.
e.g.AsfarasIknow,theearth’sresourcesarebeingastonishinglywasted.
message---poetic诗意性功能Theaddresseruseslanguageforthesolepurposeofdisplayingthebeautyoflanguageitself.e.g.poetry
contact---phaticcommunion应酬功能Theaddressertriestoestablishormaintaingoodinterpersonalrelationshipswiththeaddressee.e.g.Goodmorning.//吃饭了吗?
Godblessyou.Niceday.
code---metalinguistic元语功能Theaddresseruseslanguagetomakeclearthemeaningoflanguageitself.
e.g.Letmetellyouwhattheword“water”means.
Chapter2Phonology
Phonetics,3branchesofphonetics,ClassificationofEnglishconsonantsandvowels,Phonology,Differencebetweenphoneticsandphonology,Suprasegmentalfeatures
Phoneticsisthethestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguages.Itstudieshowsoundsareproduced,transmittedandperceived.
3branchesofphonetics:
articulatoryphonetics,auditoryphonetics,acousticphonetics.
Articulatory:
howaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.Thisbranchhasthelongesthistoryandisthefocusofthischapter.
Auditory:
howthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer.
Acoustic:
thewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves,thephysicalmeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.
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