骨髓炎英文教科书.docx
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骨髓炎英文教科书.docx
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骨髓炎英文教科书
Chapter52-AcuteandChronicOsteomyelitis
AnthonyRBerendt
CarlWNorden
EPIDEMIOLOGY
Thecharacterofosteomyelitischangedwiththeadventofantibiotics,evolvingfromadiseaseofhighmortalitytoadiseasewithhighmorbidity.Certaintrendsare
apparent.Boneandjointtuberculosishasbecomelesscommoninthedevelopedworld,althoughtheadventofHIV-relateddiseasemaybringaboutareversalinthat
trend.Anincreasingnumberofchronicboneinfectionsarenowassociatedwithtrauma,surgeryandjointreplacementratherthanbeingsecondarytohematogenous
spread.
Theepidemiologyofacutehematogenousosteomyelitishasbeendetailed.
[
1]
Theincidenceishigherinmales,itvariesamonggeographicareas(Fig.52.1)and,in
someareas,classicalacutehematogenousinfectionisinlong-termdecline.
[
2]
Themale-to-femaleratioincreaseswithagefrom1.25inthe0-to4-yearagegroupto
3.69inthe13-to19-yearagegroup.TherearesubstantiallyhigherratesinMaorichildrenfromNewZealandandAboriginalchildrenfromWesternAustraliacompared
bothwithwhitechildrenlivinginthesameareasandwithchildrenlivinginEurope.Althoughalmostcertainlysocioeconomicinorigin,thesedifferencesmayalsobe
influencedbyhostgeneticfactors.
Thereislessclearinformationontheepidemiologyofchronicosteomyelitis,withtheexceptionofdiabeticfootinfections.
[
3]
Thereareanestimated11millionpeoplein
theUSAwithdiabetes;themajorityofthesehavetype2diseaseandhenceareolderadults.Some3%ofdiabeticpeopledevelopafootulcerannuallyand10–30%of
patientswithanulcerwilleventuallyneedanamputation.Ofallamputationsinpeoplewithdiabetes,60%areprecededbyaninfectedulcer.Footproblemshavebeen
estimatedtoberesponsiblefor15%ofthehospitaladmissionsand25%ofthehospitalbedusageamongdiabeticpatients.Theannualhospitalcostsforlimb
amputationsthatarerelatedtodiabetesamounttomorethanUS$350million.
PATHOGENESISANDPATHOLOGY
Microbialfactors
Adhesionistheinitialeventinthelocalizationofinfection.
[
4]
Theinitiallooseadhesiontoboneispotentiallyreversible.However,ifthesolidphaseoffersa
configurationthatisacceptabletothereceptorsofthemicro-organisms,amorepermanentadhesionoccurs.Staphylococcusaureusstrainspossessreceptorsfor
extracellularmatrixcomponentssuchascollagen,fibronectin,bonesialoproteinandosteopontin.
[
5]
[
6]
Itisunclearwhicharecrucialforthegenesisofosteomyelitis,with
conflictingdataontheroleofthecollagenreceptor.Thefibronectin-bindingproteinsappeartoplayaroleinattachmentto,andinvasionof,endothelialcells,events
thatmaybeofrelevanceintheearlieststagesofhematogenousseeding.
[
7]
ItispossiblethattraumaorinjurymayexposebindingsitesforstrainsofS.aureus.
Followingadhesion,firmattachmentandadherentgrowthoccurs.ForstaphylococciandsomeGram-negativeorganisms,synthesisofanexocellularpolysaccharide
(glycocalyx)producesa'biofilm',withinwhichbacteriacanformmicrocolonies(Fig.52.2andFig.52.3).Adherentgrowthconfersphenotypicresistancetoantibiotics,
probablyasaresultofchangesincellularmetabolism,andtheglycocalyxmayconferprotectionagainstphagocytesandcomplement.
[
8]
Prostaglandinsarepotentboneresorptionagentsthatenhanceosteoclastactivityandcollagensynthesis.Itwasnotedinstudiesofhumanbone,aswellasinstudies
ofexperimentalosteomyelitisinanimals,thatincreasedproductionofprostaglandinE2(themostpotentprostenoidintheresorptionofbone)waspresent.
[
9]
Cytokines,
inparticulartumornecrosisfactor,arealsopotentstimulatorsofosteoclastaction.Finally,ithasbeenrecognizedthatmoleculesreleasedfromanumberofthe
pathogensthatcauseosteomyelitisarepotentstimulatorsofboneresorption,viacytokinereleasefrommonocytesandbystimulationofosteoclastformation.
[
10]
Pathology
Asinmostorgans,aninsulttoboneisfollowedbyvascularandcellularresponses.However,inbonethisprocessismodifiedbytherigidnatureofthebone,because
theincreasedtissuepressurecannotbediffusedintosofttissue.Withincreasedintramedullarypressure,sinusesandcapillariesarecompressedinthemarrow,
producinginfarction.Attheinfarctionedge,thereisreactivehyperemia,whichisassociatedwithincreasedosteoclasticactivity.Thisinturnproduceslossofboneand
localizedosteoporosis.Aninflammatoryprocessbeginsatthemarginoftheinfarctedareaandpenetratesthroughthecortexintothesubperiostealarea.Because
therearefewanchoringfibersintheperiosteumofinfantsandchildren,theperiosteumisreadilystrippedfromthebonesurfacebytheincreasedsubperiosteal
pressure.Thiscanresultindisruptionoftheperiostealbloodsupplytothecortex,andthisleadstocorticalboneinfarction,bonedeathandsequestrumformation.(A
sequestrumisamacroscopicpieceofdeadbonethatisretainedwithintheoverallbonestructure.)Strippingfromunderlyingboneisanosteogenicstimulustothe
periosteum,whichrespondsbylayingdownnewlivingbone.Theendresultisashellofnewbonearoundoraboveadeadsegment,aresponsethatpreservesthe
mechanicalstrengthofthebone,eventhoughpartsofitarenowdead.
Classificationsystemsforosteomyelitis
ThemostfrequentlyusedclassificationsystemisthatofWaldvogeletal.
[
11]
Inthisclassification,infectionsareclassifiedashematogenous,secondarytoacontiguous
focusofinfectionorrelatedtovascularinsufficiency.Forchroniclongboneosteomyelitis,asecondclassificationsystem,developedbyCierneyandMader,
[
12]
combinesfourstagesofanatomicdiseaseandthreecategoriesofphysiologichost(Fig.52.4).Thisclassificationisusefulfordescribingseverityandlocationof
infectionandforplanningtreatment,anditisamenabletostudy.Thethreecategoriesofhostare:
¦normalexceptforosteomyelitis
¦systemicorlocalcompromise,and
¦treatmentwouldbeworsethanthedisease.
572
Figure52-1Acutehematogenousosteomyelitisinpreschoolchildren.DatafromGillespie.
[
1]
Figure52-2Endosteumofboneshowingstaphylococcineartheendostealhaversiancanal.In-vitroincubationofbonechipswithStaphylococcusaureusinterruptedat48
hours(scanningelectromicrograph).FromNordenCW,GillespieWJ,NadeS.Infectionsinbonesandjoints.BlackwellScientificPublications;1994,withpermission.
Figure52-3Staphylococcienmeshedinglycocalyxnearthehaversianosteum.In-vitroincubationofbonechipswithStaphylococcusaureusinterruptedat48hours(scanning
electromicrograph).FromNordenCW,GillespieWJ,NadeS.Infectionsinbonesandjoints.BlackwellScientificPublications;1994,withpermission.
Figure52-4Anatomicclassificationofosteomyelitisinadultlongbones.AdaptedwithpermissionfromMaderJT,CalhounJ.Osteomyelitis.In:
MandelG,BennetJ,DolinR,eds.
Infectiousdiseases.NewYork:
Churchill-Livingstone;1995:
1039–52.
Causativeagentsofosteomyelitis
Inacutehematogenousosteomyelitisinchildren,S.aureusaccountsformorethanhalfoftheorganismsisolated.
[
13]
Thenextmostfrequentgroupofisolatesare
streptococci.Inosteomyelitisorosteochondritisduetopuncturewoundstothefoot,Pseudomonasaeruginosaisisolatedfrequentlyandisassociatedwiththewearing
ofsneakers.Theorganismisfoundinthesoleofthesneakerandispresumablycarriedintothefootbythepuncturingnail.
[
14]Salmonellaspp.,althoughaninfrequent
overallcause,arestronglyassociatedwithsicklecelldisease.Indiabeticpatientswithfootinfections,S.aureus,Staphylococcusepidermidis,enterococci,other
streptococciandCorynebacteriumspp.areamongthemostfrequentaerobicorganismsthatareisolatedfrombone.Anaerobicorganismsarealsofrequentlyisolated,
withPeptostreptococcusspp.beingmostcommon.Fungi,mycoplasma,mycobacteria,brucella,treponema,actinomycosisandparasiteshavealsoallbeenassociated
withosteomyelitis.
573
Pathogenesisofdiabeticfootosteomyelitis
Thepathogenesisofosteomyelitisinthediabeticfootisanimportantproblemthatmeritsadditionalconsideration.Diabeticpatientsdevelopfootulcersbecauseofa
combinationofmotor,sensoryandautonomicneuropathyinteractingwithchangesinthemechanicalpropertiesofthesofttissuesofthefoot.Motorneuropathycauses
ahigh-archedfootwithclawingofthetoes,andthisdeliversexcessivepressurestothemetatarsalheads,theheelandtheendsofthetoes.Subluxationatthe
metatarsophalangealjointsnotonlybringsthemetatarsalheadintoamoreprominentweight-bearingpositionbutalsocausesthefibrousmetatarsalpadstoslipout
fromunderthemetatarsalheads.Sensoryneuropathyreducestheresponsetopain,sothatforeignbodiesintheshoesareneglected,andcloudstherecognitionthat
itistimetochangeanill-fittingpairofshoesorrestthefeet.Autonomicneuropathyisassociatedwithexcessivefissuringandcrackingfromdry,poorlylubricatedskin,
anidealportalofentry.Nonenzymaticglycosylationofcollagenleadstocross-linking,withincreasedstiffness.
Thesefactorstogethercanreadilyleadtoulceration,whichmayleaddowntoajointorbone.Lossofperiosteumcausesdeathofthesuperficialpartofthecortexof
thebone.Infectioncantrackthroughthecorticalboneintothemedullaandspreadrapidlyupinsidethelongaxisofthebone.Boneinfarctionandreactiontoinfection
thenproceedsjustasinlargerbones.Ischemiafromperipheralvasculardiseasecompound
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