英语语言学的知识整理.docx

英语语言学的知识整理.docx

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英语语言学的知识整理

Chapter1Introduction

语言学的定义：

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.

问题：

Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:

Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage?

→Itisascientificstudybecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.

Whatthelinguisthastodo“first,then,but”:

①toobserveandcollectlanguagefactsandgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem.

②toformulatesomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.

③tocheckthehypothesesthusformedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.

Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.（普通语言学）

问题:

Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?

Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?

→phonetics（语音学）→thestudyofsounds

→phonology（音位学）→studyhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaning

→morphology（形态学）→studythewayinwhichsymbolsormorphemesarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords.

→syntax（句法学）→thestudyofrulesofformingsentences

→semantics（语义学）→thestudyofmeaning

→pragmatics（语用学）→thecontextoflanguageuse

Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：

Thestudiesofallthesesocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyformthecoreofthebranch.

Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：

Relatethestudyoflanguagetopsychology

Appliedlinguistics（应用语言学）：

Inanarrowsenseitreferstotheapplicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.

Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics:

①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）

②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）

③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）

④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（theSwisslinguistF.deSaussure——CourseinGeneralLinguistics）

⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（theAmericanlinguistN.Chomsky）

⑥traditionalgrammar（传统语法）/modernlinguistics（现代语言学）

问题：

inwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernlinguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar?

①linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.

②modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.

③modernlinguisticsdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.

问题：

Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?

Why?

Inmodernlinguistics,asynchronic（不考虑历史演进的,限于一时的）approachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronic（探求现象变化的,历时的）one.

Becauseitisbelievedthatunlessthevariousstatesofalanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsaresuccessfullystudied,itwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.

Synchronicdescriptionsareoftenthoughtofasbeingdescriptionsoflanguageinitscurrentexistence,andmostlinguisticstudiesareofthistype.

问题：

Forwhatreasonsdoesmodernlinguisticsgiveprioritytospeechratherthantowriting?

Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday’sworldtherearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.Thenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.

Spokenlanguagerevealsmoretruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe“revised”recordofspeech.Andlinguists’dataforinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromeverydayspeech,whichtheyregardedasauthentic.

语言的定义：

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

Designfeaturesoflanguage（7个识别特征）

①arbitrariness任意性（atthesyntacticlevel）

②productivity能产性，创造性

Secondaryunits（底层结构sounds）

③duality双层性

Primaryunits（上层结构unitsofmeaning）

④displacement不受时空限制性（handlegeneralizationandabstraction）

⑤culturaltransmission文化传递性

⑥interchangeability互换性

⑦convention约定性

Functionsoflanguage：

三大主要功能：

Thedescriptivefunction

Theexpressivefunction

Thesocialfunction

RomanJacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）

①speakeraddresser→emotive感情功能

②addressee→conative意动功能

③context→referential所指功能

④message→poetic诗学功能

⑤contact→phaticcommunion交感功能

⑥code→metalinguistic元语言功能

Otherfunctions:

①phaticfunction问候功能

②informativef.信息功能

③interrogativef.询问功能

④expressivef.表达功能

⑤evocativef.感染功能

⑥directivef.指令功能

⑦performativef.行使（权力）功能

M.A.K.Halliday

①ideational

②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/socialrelationships）

③textual

问题：

HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?

ThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebySaussure,langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Paroleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable;itdoesnotchangefrequently,whileparolevariesfrompeopletopeople,andfromsituationtosituation.

ThedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformanceproposedbytheAmericanlinguistsChomsky,competenceisadealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andtheperformanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Imperfectperformanceiscausedbysocialandpsychologicalfactors.

Saussuremakesthisdistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Inhisopinion,paroleissimpleamassoflinguisticfacts,toovariedconfusingforsystematicinvestigation,andthatlinguisticsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,i.e.,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.

SimilartoSaussure,Chomskythinkswhatlinguistsshouldstudyistheidealspeaker’scompetence,nothisperformance,whichistoohaphazardtobestudied.

问题：

WhatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguagethathavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem?

①arbitrariness任意性（atthesyntacticlevel）

②productivity能产性，创造性

Secondaryunits（底层结构sounds）

③duality双层性

Primaryunits（上层结构unitsofmeaning）

④displacement不受时空限制性（handlegeneralizationandabstraction）

⑤culturaltransmission文化传递性

⑥interchangeability互换性

⑦convention约定性

Chapter2Phonology

Phonetics:

（语音学）

①thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage

②lookatspeechsoundsfrom3distinctbutrelatedpointsofview.

Ⅰstudythesoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview→articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）

Ⅱlookatthesoundsfromthehearer’spointofview→auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）

Ⅲstudythewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves→acousticphonetics（声学语音学）

③studyhowsoundsareproduced,transmittedandperceived.

Organsofspeech:

⒈threeimportantareas

1Thepharyngealcavity→thethroat

②theoralcavity→themouth

③thenasalcavity→thenose

⒉Thepharyngealcavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords

⒊theoralcavity→tongue/uvula/softpalate（velum）/hardpalate/teethridge（alveolus）

/teeth/lips

InternationalPhoneticAlphabet（IPA）

①diacritics附加符号

②broadtranscription（宽式标音）→thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly

③narrowtranscription（严式标音）→thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics

ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds

①twobroadcategoriesofspeechsoundsinEnglish:

Vowels/consonants

②twowaystoclassifytheEnglishconsonants:

Intermsofmannerofarticulation

Intermsofplaceofarticulation

③Intermsofmannerofarticulation:

Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides

④Intermsofplaceofarticulation:

Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal

⑤

bilabial

Labio-dental

dental

alveolar

palatal

velar

glottal

stops

VL

p

t

k

VD

b

d

g

fricatives

VL

f

θ

s

ʃ

h

VD

v

ð

z

ʒ

affricates

VL

（tʃ）

tʃ

VD

（dʒ）

dʒ

nasals

VD

m

n

ŋ

liquids

VD

l/r

glides

VD

w

j

ClassificationofEnglishvowels

⒈criteria:

（monophthongs）单元音

Thepositionofthetongueinthemouth:

front/central/back

Theopennessofthemouth:

closevowels/semi-closevowels/semi-openvowels/openvowels

Theshapeofthelips:

unrounded/rounded

Thelengthofthevowels:

tense/lax

front

central

back

close

i:

u:

i

u

Semi-close

e

ə:

Semi-open

ə

ɔ:

open

æ

ʌ

ɔ

a

a:

⒉diphthongs双元音

/ei/

/ai/

/au/

/əu/

/ɔi/

/iə/

/εə/

/uə/

Phonology音韵学，语音体系

Differenceofphonologyandphonetics:

1Phoneticsisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages.

2Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.

Phone（音素）:

Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.

Phoneme（音位）:

Itisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.

Allophone（音位变体）:

Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.

Phonemiccontrast（音位对立）

Complementarydistribution（音位变体的互补分布）

Minimalpairs（最小对立体）：

含音位的单词的全部音标

Minimalset（最小对立集）：

isusedtofindtheimportantsoundsinlanguage.

PhonologicalAnalysis（音位分析）

Principle:

certainsoundscausechangesinthemeaningofawordorphase,whereasothersoundsdonot.

Phoneticallysimilarsounds:

描述音位关系

Freevariants:

音位的自由变体

Thedifferenceofpronouncingasoundcausedbydialect,habit,individualdifferenceorregionaldifferencesinsteadofbyanydistributionrule.

Somerulesinphonology

①sequentialrules:

序列规则

Ifawordbeginswitha/l/ora/r/,thenthene