考试大 语言学笔记纲要.docx

考试大 语言学笔记纲要.docx

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考试大语言学笔记纲要

Linguistics

Chapter1Introduction:

LanguageandLinguistics

●Whatislanguage?

⏹Differentdefinitionsoflanguage

◆Languageisasystemwhosepartscanandmustbeconsideredintheirsynchronicsolidarity.（deSaussure,1916）

◆[Languageis]aset（finiteorinfinite）ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.（Chomsky,1957）

◆Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.

⏹Eachofthedefinitionsabovehaspointedoutsomeaspectsoftheessenceoflanguage,butallofthemhaveleftoutsomething.Wemustseethemulti-facetednatureoflanguage.

⏹Asisagreedbylinguistsinbroadterms,languagecanbedefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

●Featuresofhumanlanguage

⏹Creativity

◆Languageprovidesopportunitiesforsendingmessagesthathaveneverbeensentbeforeandforunderstandingbrandnewmessages.

◆Thegrammarrulesandthewordsarefinite,butthesentencesareinfinite.Everyspeakeruseslanguagecreatively.

⏹Duality

◆Languagecontainstwosubsystems,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.

◆Certainsoundsorsequencesofsoundsstandforcertainmeanings.

◆Certainmeaningsareconveyedbycertainspeechsoundsorsequencesofspeechsounds.

⏹Arbitrariness

◆Therelationshipbetweenthetwosubsystemsoflanguageisarbitrary.

◆Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.

⏹Displacement

◆Thereisnolimitintimeorspaceforlanguage.

◆Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentorfuture.

⏹Culturaltransmission

◆Culturecannotbegeneticallytransmitted.Instead,itmustbelearned.

◆Languageisawayoftransmittingculture.

⏹Interchangeability

◆Allmembersofaspeechcommunitycansendandreceivemessages.

⏹Reflexivity

◆Humanlanguagescanbeusedtodescribethemselves.

◆Thelanguageusedtotalkaboutlanguageiscalledmeta-language.

●Functionsoflanguage–threemeta-functions

⏹Theideationalfunction

◆Toidentifythings,tothink,ortorecordinformation.

⏹Theinterpersonalfunction

◆Togetalonginacommunity.

⏹Thetextualfunction

◆Toformatext.

●Typesoflanguage

⏹Geneticclassification

⏹Typologicalclassification

◆Analyticlanguage–noinflectionsorformalchanges,grammaticalrelationshipsareshownthroughwordorder,suchasChineseandVietnamese

◆Syntheticlanguage–grammaticalrelationshipsareexpressedbychangingtheinternalstructureofthewords,typicallybychangingtheinflectionalendings,suchasEnglishandGerman

◆Agglutinatinglanguage–wordsarebuiltoutofalongsequenceofunits,witheachunitexpressingaparticulargrammaticalmeaning,suchasJapaneseandTurkish

●Themythoflanguage–languageorigin

⏹TheBiblicalaccount

◆LanguagewasGod’sgifttohumanbeings.

⏹Thebow-wowtheory

◆Languagewasanimitationofnaturalsounds,suchasthecriesofanimals,likequack,cuckoo.

⏹Thepooh-poohtheory

◆Languagearosefrominstinctiveemotionalcries,expressiveofpainorjoy.

⏹Theyo-he-hotheory

◆Languagearosefromthenoisesmadebyagroupofpeopleengagedinjointlabouroreffort–liftingahugehuntedgame,movingarock,etc.

⏹Theevolutiontheory

◆Languageoriginatedintheprocessoflabourandansweredthecallofsocialneed.

●Whatislinguistics?

⏹Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.

◆Observing&questioning

◆Formulatinghypotheses

◆Verifyingthehypotheses

◆Proposingatheory

⏹Branchesoflinguistics

◆Internalbranches:

intra-disciplinarydivisions

●Phonetics

●Phonology

●Morphology

●Syntax

●Semantics

◆Externalbranches:

inter-disciplinarydivisions

●Pragmatics

●Psycholinguistics

●Sociolinguistics

●Appliedlinguistics

●Computationallinguistics

●Neurolinguistics

⏹Featuresoflinguistics

◆Descriptive

◆Dealingwithspokenlanguage

◆Synchronic

Chapter2Phonetics●Whatisphonetics?

⏹Phoneticsistermedasthestudyofspeechsounds.

⏹Sub-branchesofphonetics

◆Articulatoryphonetics–theproductionofspeechsounds

◆Acousticphonetics–thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds

◆Auditoryphonetics–theperceptivemechanismofspeechsounds

●Thespeechorgans

⏹Wheredoestheairstreamcomefrom?

◆Fromthelung

⏹Whatisthefunctionofvocalcords?

◆Controllingtheairstream

⏹Whatarethecavities?

◆Oralcavity

◆Pharyngealcavity

◆Nasalcavity

●Transcriptionofspeechsounds

⏹Unitsofrepresentation

◆Segments（theindividualsounds）

⏹Phoneticsymbols

◆ThewidelyusedsymbolsforphonetictranscriptionofspeechsoundsistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet（IPA）.

◆TheIPAattemptstorepresenteachsoundofhumanspeechwithasinglesymbolandthesymbolsareenclosedinbrackets[]todistinguishphonetictranscriptionsfromthespellingsystemofalanguage.

◆Inmoredetailedtranscription（narrowtranscription）asoundmaybetranscribedwithasymboltowhichasmallerisaddedinordertomarkthefinerdistinctions.

●Descriptionofspeechsounds

⏹DescriptionofEnglishconsonants

◆Generalfeature:

obstruction

◆Criteriaofconsonantdescription

●Placesofarticulation

●Mannersofarticulation

●Voicingofarticulation

◆Placesofarticulation

●Thisreferstoeachpointatwhichtheairstreamcanbemodifiedtoproduceasound.

⏹Bilabial:

[p][b][m][w]

⏹Labiodental:

[f][v]

⏹Interdental:

[W][T]

⏹Alveolar:

[t][d][s][z][l][n][r]

⏹Palatal:

[F][V][tF][dV][j]

⏹Velar:

[k][g][N]

⏹Glottal:

[h]

◆Mannersofarticulation

●Thisreferstohowtheairstreamismodified,whetheritiscompletelyblockedorpartiallyobstructed.

⏹Stops:

[p][b][t][d][k][g]

⏹Fricatives:

[s][z][F][V][f][v][W][T][h]

⏹Affricates:

[tF][dV]

⏹Liquids:

[l][r]

⏹Glides:

[w][j]

⏹Nasals:

[m][n][N]

◆Voicingofarticulation

●Thisreferstothevibratingofthevocalcordswhensoundsareproduced.

⏹Voicedsounds

⏹Voicelesssounds

⏹DescriptionofEnglishvowels

◆Generalfeature:

withoutobstruction

◆Criteriaofvoweldescription

●Partofthetonguethatisraised

⏹Front

⏹Central

⏹Back

●Extenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalate

⏹High

⏹Mid

⏹Low

●Kindofopeningmadeatthelips

●Positionofthesoftpalate

◆Singlevowels（monophthongs）anddiphthongs

●Phoneticfeaturesandnaturalclasses

⏹Classesofsoundsthatshareafeatureorfeaturesarecallednaturalclasses.

⏹Majorclassfeaturescanspecifysegmentsacrosstheconsonant-vowelboundary.

⏹Classificationofsegmentsbyfeaturesisthebasisonwhichvariationsofsoundscanbeanalyzed.

Chapter3Phonology

●Whatisphonology?

⏹Phonologyisthestudyofsoundsystemsandpatterns.

⏹Phonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.

⏹Phonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.

◆Whatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?

◆Whatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?

◆Whatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?

●Phonemesandallophones

⏹Aphonemeisadistinctive,abstractsoundunitwithadistinctivefeature.

⏹Thevariantsofaphonemearetermedallophones.

⏹Weuseallophonestorealizephonemes.

●Discoveringphonemes

⏹Contrastivedistribution–phonemes

◆Ifsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.

◆Typicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.

●Aminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.

●Minimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.

◆TheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.

◆SomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.

⏹Complementarydistribution–allophones

◆Soundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.

◆Ifsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.

⏹Freevariation

◆Ifsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.

●Distinctiveandnon-distinctivefeatures

⏹Featuresthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.

⏹Distinctivefeaturesinonelanguagemaybenon-distinctiveinanother.

●Phonologicalrules

⏹Phonemesareabstractsoundunitsstoredinthemind,whileallophonesaretheactualpronunciationsinspeech.

⏹Whatphonemeisrealizedbywhatallophonesinwhatspecificcontextisanothermajorquestioninphonology.

⏹Theregularitiesthatwhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontextaregeneralizedandstatedinphonologyasrules.

⏹TherearemanyphonologicalrulesinEnglish.Takethefollowingonesasexamples.

●[+voiced+consonant]–[-voiced]/[-voiced+consonant]_

●[-voiced+bilabial+stop]–unaspirated/[-voiced+alveolar+fricative]_

●Syllablestructure

⏹Asyllableisaphonologicalunitthatiscomposedofoneormorephonemes.

⏹Everysyllablehasanucleus,whichisusuallyavowel.

⏹Thenucleusmaybeprecededbyoneormoreconsonantscalledtheonsetandfollowedbyoneormoreconsonantscalledthecoda.

●Sequenceofphone