现代语言学笔记.docx

现代语言学笔记.docx

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现代语言学笔记

Introduction

一､Linguistics:

Itisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.

二､Thescopeoflinguistics

1､phonetics:

Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified.

2､phonology:

Howspeechsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveythemeaning

3､morphology:

Howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords

4､syntax:

Howmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences

5､semantics:

Thestudyofmeaning（inabstraction.）

6､pragmatics:

Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuse

7､sociolinguistics:

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety

8､psycholinguistics:

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetoworkingofthemind

9.appliedlinguistics:

theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning.  

三､Someimportantdistinctioninlinguistics

1､descriptive（描述性）:

Alinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.

2､prescriptive（规定性）:

Itaimstolaydownrulesfor“correct”behaviors.i.e.whattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnottosay.

1､synchronic（共时语言学）:

Itreferstothestudyofvariationinlanguageindifferentplacesandamongdifferentgroupsatagivenpointintime.

2､diachronic（历时语言学）:

Studieslanguagechangeovervariousperiodsoftimeandatvarioushistoricalstages.

1､speech2､writingarethetwomediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.

1､langue（语言）:

referstoabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofthespeechcommunity.Itisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby.Suchas:

InEnglishsentencemusthavesubjectandpredicate.

2､parole（言语）:

referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Itisconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.

1､competence（语言能力）:

Astheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage

2､performance（语言应用）:

theactualrealizationofhisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.

四､Whatislanguage?

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

Languageisasystemi.e.elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.

Languageisarbitrary.becausethefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesomeobject.

Languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages.

Languageissymbols.

Theterm“human”inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishumanspecific.

五､designfeatures（识别特征）

Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Therearetwelvedesignfeatures,butthisbookonlytellusfiveofthem.

Arbitrariness:

thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguage,butitisnotentirelyarbitrary.

Productivity:

languagemakepossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitusers.Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.

Duality（二重性）:

Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevelsatthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaningless.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaningsuchasmorphemesandwords.

Displacement:

Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinpast,presentorfuture.orinfar-awayplace.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofspeakers.

Phonology

一､phonetics

Thespeechandwritingaretwomediaorsubstanceusedbynaturallanguageasvehiclesforcommunication.

Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds;theyareconcernedwithonlythosesoundsthatareproducedbythehumanspeechorgans.

Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofphonicmediumoflanguage.It’sconcernedwithallsoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguage.

Phoneticslooksatspeechsoundsfrom3distinctbutrelatedpointofview.Theyare:

Articulationphonetics（发音语音学）:

Howaspeakeruseshisspeechorgansarticulatethesounds. 

Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）:

Howahearerperceivesthesounds.

Acoustic（声学语音学）:

Howthesoundsaretransmitter.

Organs:

pharyngealcavity–thethroat oralcavity—themouth nasalcavity—thenose

Voiceless:

whenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration.

Voicing:

soundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibrating 

Broadtranscription:

thetranscriptionwiththeletter-symbolsonly

Narrowtranscription:

thetranscriptionwiththeletter-symbolsandthediacritics.

Englishsoundscanbeclassifiedtwocategories:

vowelsandconsonants

Consonants:

thesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairsteamatsomepointofthevocaltract.

Vowels:

thesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstruction.

Phonology:

thestudyofsoundsystem—theinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.

Phoneticsandphonology:

arestudiesofspeechsounds.Phoneticsisinterestedinallspeechsoundintheworld’slanguage:

howtheyareproducedandclassified.Phonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatterns,andhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.

Phone（音素）:

Isdefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning;somedo,somedon’t.

Phoneme（音位）:

Itisbasicunitinphonology;itiscollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.

Allophone（音位变体）:

Differentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledallophonesofthatphoneme.

Phonemiccontrast（音位对立）;Complementary（音位互补）;Minimalpair（最小对立）:

Twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthatoccursinthesameposition.

Somerulesinphonology:

1Sequentialrules,

2Assimilationrules（onesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakethetwophonessimilar）3Deletionrule（ittelluswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.）

Suprasegmentalfeatures:

thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesare:

stress,tone,intonation.

Morphology

Itisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesthatformthewords.

Morphologyistwosub-branch:

inflectionalmorphologyandlexicalorderivationalmorphology.

Morpheme:

thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.（Aphonemeisthebasicunitinthestudyofphonology,soisamorphemethebasicunitinthestudyofmorphology.）

Typeofmorphemes:

freemorphemesandboundmorphemes（includerootandaffixes）

Freemorphemes:

areindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.Forexample:

boy.

Boundmorphemes:

cannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.

Roots:

Arootisoftenseenasapartofaword,itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.SuchrootsarenumerousinEnglishforexample:

"geo-“bearsthemeaningof“theearth”.Whenitcombineswithanotherroot“-ology”meaning“abranchoflearning”,wegottheword“geology”whichmeans“thestudyoftheearth’sstructure.

Affixesaretwotypes:

inflectionalaffixes（inflectionalmorpheme）andderivationalaffixes.

Inflectionalaffixes:

manifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.

-（e）s,indicatingpluralityofnouns.

-（e）s,indicatingthirdpersonsingular,presenttense.

-（e）d,indicatingpasttenseforallthreepersons.

-ing,indicatingprogressiveaspect.

-er,indicatingcomparativedegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.

-est,indicatingsuperlativedegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.

-‘s,indicatingthepossessivecaseofnouns.

Derivationalaffixes:

areaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.Suchawayofword-formationiscalledderivationandthenewwordformedbyderivationiscalledaderivative.

Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem

Affixescanbedividedintotwokinds:

prefixesandsuffixes.PrefixesandSuffixes

Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofaword,modifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.

Suffixesattheendofaword,areaddedtotheendofstems.Theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.

CompoundingispopularandimportantwayofformingnewwordsinEnglish.Intermsofmorphemicanalysis,derivationcanbeviewedadtheadditionofaffixestostemstoformnewwords,andcompoundingthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.

Featuresofcompounds

1.orthographically（拼写特征）:

acompoundcanbewrittenasonewithorwithoutahyphen,orastwoseparatewords.Forexample:

armchair,follow-up,thunderbird.

2.syntactically（句法特征）:

thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.Forexample:

ice-cold（adj.）greenhouse（noun）.

3.sematically（语意特征）:

themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningsofthemeaningsofitscomponents.Forexample:

ablacklegisnotalegthatisblack,itmeanscheater

4.phonetically（语音特征）:

thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whil