英语语言学.docx
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英语语言学.docx
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英语语言学
英语语言学
英语语言学
一、语言的特点和功能(FeaturesandFunctionsofLanguage)
语言:
Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication
1.FeaturesofLanguage(言的特点)
1)Productivity:
languageuserscanunderstandandcreateunlimitednumberofsentenceswithlinguisticelement.Thisisaresultofthedualstructuresofeverylanguage.多产性,即语言的使用者可以理解并创造无限数量的句子。
2)Duality:
Languageisasystemoftwostructures,ie.,thestructureofsoundsandstructureofmeaning.二重性,指语言是声音和意义双重结构组成的系统。
3)Arbitrariness:
theconceptsrepresentedbylanguageandtheircorrespondingaudiosymbolsareinanarbitraryrelationship.任意性,即语言所表达的概念与其相对应的声音符号间的关系是任意的。
4)Displacement:
Wecanuselanguagetodescribethingsthatarenotpresent,suchassomethinginthepast,thefuture,orthingsthatdoesnotevenexistinreality,suchasE.T.移位性,指我们用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西,比如外星人
5)Culturaltransmission:
Thoughendowedwiththephysiologicalbasisformasteringalanguage,thehumanbeingisnotinbornwiththecapabilityoflanguageandhastobeplacedinaspecificculturalenvironmentsoastograspalanguage.文化传递性,指语言是一种传递文化的方式
6)Interchangeability:
可交换性,即同一个语言共同体内的成员可以传递、接收信息。
7)Reflexivity:
自反性,指人类的语言可以被用来描述语言本身,即“元语言”。
2.FunctionsofLanguage
语言的功能
1)Informative:
Thisisthemainfunctionoflanguage.Whenpeopleuselanguagetocommunicatewitheachothertheirexperienceintherealworld,recordordescribethe“content”ofthereality,theyareactuallytakingadvantageofthisfunction.信息功能,即语言可以用来传递信息,在功能语言学中称之为达意功能(ideationalfunction).
2)Interpersonal:
Peopleestablishandmaintaintheiridentityinthesocietybythisfunction人际功能,指人们通过语言来建立、维持其社会地位。
3)Performative:
Thisisafunctionwherebythelanguageinfluencesdirectlyonthereality,suchasthesentenceofimprisonmentbythejudge,thenamingofacertainshipandthecursesasbelievedbytheancientpeople.施为功能,指人们通过语来实现让他人完成某个人物的功能。
此概念来自Austin和Searle,属于语用学(Pragmatics)的范畴。
4)Emotive:
感情功能,指语言可以改变听众的感情。
5)Phaticcommunion:
Thisisfunctionrealizedbythose“Phaticlanguage”,aimingatestablishingaharmoniousandintimateclimateamongpeople.交感性谈话,指人们使用特定的表达方式,如“你好”等来维持相互间的关系。
6)Recreational:
Thisfunctionmeansthatsometimespeoplemayenjoylanguageforlanguage’ssake,i.e.,notusinglanguageinanypracticalpurposes,suchastongue-twistersandchildishbabbles.娱乐功能,指人们可以使用语言进行娱乐活动,如唱歌等。
7)Metalingual:
Peoplemayuselanguagetotalkabout,explainorevenchangelanguageitself.Thisisthemetalingualfunctionoflanguage.元语言功能,指人类可以使用语言来谈论、改变语言本身。
二、BranchesofLinguistics(语言学的主要分支)
语言学就是对语言的科学研究。
1.InternalBranches:
Intra-disciplinarydivisions
(内部分支)
1)phonetics(语音学):
thestudyofspeechsounds(研究语音);
2)Phonology(音系学\音位学):
thestudyoftherulesgoverningthestructure,distributionandsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables(研究音和音节的结构、分布于和序列);
3)Morphology(形态学):
thestudyoftheminimalunitsofmeaning—morphemesandword-formationprocesses,thatis,theinternalorganizationofwords(研究意义的最小单位—语素合成词过程,即单词的内部构造);
4)Syntax(句法学):
thestudyofprinciplesofformingandunderstandingcorrectEnglishsentences(研究造句的规则);
5)Semantics(语义学):
thestudyofhowmeaningisencodedinalanguage(研究意义如何在语言中编码);
6)Pragmatics(语用学):
thestudyofmeaningincontext(研究语境中的意义
2.ExternalBranches:
inter-disciplinarydivisions
(外部分支:
跨学科分支即宏观语言学分支)
1)Psycholinguistics(心理语言学):
tostudytheinterrelationoflanguageandmind;
2)Sociolinguistics(社会语言学):
tostudythecharacteristicsofLanguagevarieties,languagefunctionsandspeakersasthethreeinteractandchangewithinaspeechcommunity;
3)AnthropologicalLinguistics(人类语言学):
tostudytheemergenceoflanguageandthedivergenceoflanguageoverthousandsofyears;
4)ComputationalLinguistics(计算机语言学):
tostudytheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage.
三、Phonetics语音学
1.Sub-branchesofPhonetics
(语音学分支)
1)ArticulatoryPhonetics(发音语音学):
theproductionofspeechsounds;
2)Acousticphonetics(声学语音学):
thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds;
3)Auditoryphonetics(听觉语音学):
theperceptivemechanismofspeechsounds.
2.Groupsofspeechsounds
语音分类
Consonants(辅音)
Vowels(元音)
四、Phonology音位学
音位学与语音学的区别:
语音学着重于语音的自然属性,主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音,它是音位学研究的基础;新位学则强调语音的社会功能,其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音
1.PhonemesandAllophones
(音位和音位变体)
1)Phoneme:
adistinctive,abstractsoundunitwithadistinctivefeature(在某一语言中具有区别意义的最小语音单位).
2)Allophones:
thevariantsofaphoneme.没有区分表意单位作用的音段较音位变体。
3)Contrastivedistribution(对立分布):
thetypicaltobefoundinMinimaPairs(最小语音对).AMinimalPairreferstotwowordswhichdifferfromeachotherbyonlyonedistinctivesound(onePhoneme)andwhichalsodifferinmeaning,forexample,bearandpear.如pin和pen
4)Complementarydistribution(互补分布):
allophonesthatarenotfoundinthesameposition(从不出现在相同环境中的音位变体,入送气的[p](peak)决不会出现在[s]之后,而不送气的[p](speak)也决不会出现在词首):
5)Freevariation(自由变体):
Ifsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation(同一个词由于某种原因发成了两个音,这种差异可能来自方言或者习惯等).
2.SuprasegmentalFeatures
(超音段特征)
Theprinciplesuprasegmentalfeaturesaresyllable,stress,toneandintonation.对于大于音段的语音单位(如音阶、单词和句子—)的语音特征进行的研究成为超音段音位学,超音段特征包括重音(stress),音长(length),音高(Pitch)和此三者共同作用的结果—语调(Intonation)
五、Morphology形态学
1.Morpheme(词素)
1)Morpheme:
thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage(最小的有意义的语言单位).
2)FreeMorphemes(自由语素)andBoundMorphemes(粘着语素)
●Morphemesconstitutingwordsbythemselvesarecalledfreemorphemes.Theyareroots(词根)ofwords.
●Morphemesalwaysattachedtofreemorphemestoformnewwordsarecalledboundmorphemes.Theyareaffixes(词缀)ofwords,whichcanbefurtherdividedintoInflectionalAffixes(曲折词缀)andDerivationalAffixes(派生词缀).
●InflectionalmorphemesinmodernEnglishindicatecaseandnumberofnouns,tenseandaspectofverbs,anddegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.
●Derivationalmorphemesareboundmorphemesaddedtoexistingformstoconstructnewwords.
2.WordFormation
(词的形成)
1)Derivation(派生):
length+en→lengthen
2)Compounding(复合):
book+shelf→bookshelf
3)Lexicalchangeproper(特有的词汇变化)
●Invention(新创词语):
nylon
●Blending(混成词):
transfer+resister→transistor
●Abbreviation(缩写词):
abbreviation→ad.
●Acronym(首字母缩写词):
WorldTradeOrganization→WTO
●Back-formation(逆构词法):
editor→edit
●Borrowing(外来词):
Kung-fu
4)Semanticchange(语义变化)
●Broadening(词义扩大):
tasktaximposed→apieceofwork
●Narrowing(词义缩小):
deerbeast→aparticularkindofanimal
●Meaningshift(词义转移):
beadprayer→theprayerbead→small,Ball-shapedpieceofglass,metalorwood
六、Syntax句法学
主要研究句子结构以及词、词组和短语组成句子规则
1.TraditionalGrammar
(传统语法)
1)Intraditionalgrammar,asentenceisconsideredasequenceofwordswhichareclassifiedintopartsofspeech.
2)sentencesareanalyzedintermsofgrammaticalfunctionsofwords:
subjects,objects,verbs(predicates),predicative
3)nouns:
number,case,gender…
4)verbs:
tense,aspect,voice…
5)agreementinnumber/person/gender
2.StructuralGrammar
(结构主义语法)
1)itwasfoundedbySaussure,whodistinguishesthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguisticsasLangue(语言)andParole(言语)
2)Structuralgrammararoseoutofanattempttodeviatefromtraditionalgrammar.Itdealswiththeinter-relationshipsofdifferentgrammaticalunits.Intheconcernofstructuralgrammar,wordsarenotjustindependentgrammaticalunits,butareinter-relatedtooneanother.
3)Keyconcepts:
SyntagmaticandParadigmaticrelations(组合关系和聚合关系),StructureandSystem(结构与系统),Immediateconstituents(直接成分),EndocentricandExocentricconstructions(向心结构与离心结构).
3.Transformational-Generative(TG)Grammar(转化生成语法)
1)ItwasfoundedbyNoamChomsky,whobelievesthatlanguageissomewhatinnate—TheInnatenessHypothesis(天赋假说)andthatchildrenarebornwithaLanguageAcquisitionDevice(语言习得机制),whichconsistsofthreeelements:
ahypothesis-maker(假设标记),linguisticuniversal(语言普遍性)andanevaluationprocedure(评估程序).
2)Chomskydistinguishesalanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesandtheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituationasCompetence(语言能力)andPerformance(语言运用).TGGrammartakestheidealspeaker’slinguisticcompetenceastheobjectofstudy.
3)TheGrammarhasfivestagesofdevelopment:
theClassicalTheory,theStandardTheory,theExtendedStandardTheory,theRevisedExtendedStandardTheoryandtheMinimalistprogram.
4.Systematic-FunctionalGrammar(系统功能与法)
1)ItwasfoundedbyM.A.K.Hallidayandtakesactualusesoflanguageastheobjectofstudy.
2)TheGrammarhastwocomponents:
SystematicGrammarandFunctionalGrammar.
2)Keyconcepts:
ThemandRheme(主位和述位),CommunicativeDynamism(交际动力),thethreemeta-functionsoflanguage—Ideationalfunction(达意功能),Interpersonalfunction(交际功能)andTextualfunction(文本功能)
Summary
Schools
Representatives
TheoriesandConcepts
1.
Saussure
Languageisasystemofsigns.
StructuralGrammar
2.
Chomsky
Transformational-GenerativeGrammar
3.ThePragueSchool
/
Synchroniclinguisticstudy
Languageisfunctional
FunctionalSentencePerspective(FSP)
ThemeandRheme
4.TheLondonSchool
FirthHalliday
Theobjectoflinguisticsislanguageinactualuse.
Systematic-FunctionalGrammar
5.AmericanStructuralism
BoasandSapirBloomfield
Sapir-WhorfHypothesis
BehaviourisminLinguistics
七、Semantics
语义学
DefinitionofMeaning
1)G.-Leechandhis7typesofmeaning:
Conceptualmeaning(概念意义),Connotativemeaning(内含意义),Socialmeaning(社会意义),Affectivemeaning(情感意义),Reflectedmeaning(反意义),Collocativemeaning(搭配意义),Thematicmeaning(主题意义).
2)Theconceptualview(概念主义观点):
semantictriangle(语义三角)byOgdenandRichards—SymbolorFor
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